Basic methods of psychological research: classification and brief description

Observation consists of several stages:

1. Definition of the subject (situation, object, etc.);
2. Determining the method of observation;
3. Selecting a data recording method;
4. Creating a plan;
5. Selecting a method for processing results;
6. Observation;
7. Processing of received data and their interpretation.

You should also decide on the means of observation - it can be carried out by a specialist or recorded by devices (audio, photo, video equipment, surveillance cards). Observation is often confused with experimentation. But these are two different methods. The difference between them is that when observing:

• The observer does not influence the process;
• The observer registers exactly what he observes.

There is a certain code of ethics developed by the American Psychological Association (APA). This code implies conducting observations according to certain rules and precautions. Examples include the following:

• If the observation is planned to be carried out in a public place, then obtaining consent from the participants in the experiment is not necessary. Otherwise, consent is required.
• Researchers must not allow participants to come to harm in any way during the course of the study.
• Researchers should minimize their intrusion into the privacy of participants.
• Researchers should not disclose confidential information about participants.

Every person, even if he is not a specialist in the field of psychology, can use the observation method in order to, if necessary, obtain data regarding any issue.

EXAMPLE:

You want to send your child to some section or club. To make the right choice, you need to identify his predispositions, i.e. what he gravitates towards on his own without outside influence. To do this you need to conduct observation. Look at the child from the outside, what he does when he is left alone, what actions he performs, what he likes to do. If, for example, he constantly draws everywhere, then perhaps he has a natural affinity for drawing and you can try sending him to an art school. If he likes to disassemble/assemble something, then he may be interested in technology. A constant craving for playing ball suggests that it is worth sending him to a football or basketball school. You can also ask kindergarten teachers or school teachers to observe your child and draw certain conclusions based on this. If your son is constantly bullying and fighting with boys, this is not a reason to scold him, but an incentive to enroll him in some kind of martial arts class. If your daughter loves to braid her friends' hair, then she may be interested in starting to learn the art of hairdressing.

There can be a huge number of observation options. The main thing is to understand what exactly you want to determine and think through the best ways to make your observations.

Psychological experiment

An experiment as an experiment conducted under certain conditions in order to obtain new data through the direct intervention of the experimenter in the life activity of the subject. During the research process, the scientist changes a certain factor/factors and sees what happens as a result. A psychological experiment may include other methods: testing, survey, observation. But it can also be a completely independent method.

There are several types of experiments (according to the method of conducting):

• Laboratory – when you can control specific factors and change conditions;
• Natural - carried out under normal conditions and the person may not even know about the experiment;
• Psychological and pedagogical – when a person/group of people learns something and develops certain qualities in themselves, masters skills;
• Aerobatic - a trial experiment conducted before the main one.

There are also experiments on the level of awareness:

• Explicit - the subject is aware of the experiment and all its details;
• Hidden - the subject does not know all the details of the experiment or does not know about the experiment at all;
• Combined - the subject knows only part of the information or is deliberately misled about the experiment.

Organization of the experiment process

The researcher must set a clear task - why the experiment is being conducted, with whom and under what conditions. Next, a certain relationship must be established between the subject and the scientist, and the subject is given instructions (or not given). Then the experiment itself is carried out, after which the data obtained is processed and interpreted.

An experiment as a scientific method must meet certain qualities:

• Objectivity of the data obtained;
• Reliability of the data obtained;
• Validity of the obtained data.

But, despite the fact that experiment is one of the most respected research methods, it has both pros and cons.

Pros:

• Possibility to choose a starting point to start the experiment;
• Possibility of repeated implementation;
• The ability to change certain factors, thereby influencing the result.

Cons (according to some experts):

• The psyche is difficult to study;
• The psyche is fickle and unique;
• The psyche has the property of spontaneity.

For these reasons, when conducting psychological experiments, researchers cannot rely on data from this method alone in their results and must resort to combination with other methods and take into account many different indicators. When conducting experiments, you should also adhere to the APA Code of Ethics.

It is possible to conduct various experiments in the process of life without the help of certified specialists and experienced psychologists. Naturally, the results obtained during independent experiments will be purely subjective. But it is still possible to obtain certain information.

EXAMPLE:

Let's say you want to learn more about people's behavior in certain circumstances, see how they will react to something and, perhaps, even understand their train of thought. Model a situation for this and use it in life. As an example, the following can be given: a person was interested in how others would react to a sleeping person sitting next to them and leaning on them in a vehicle. To do this, he took his friend, who was filming what was happening on camera, and repeated the same action several times: he pretended to be asleep and leaned his elbows on his neighbor. People's reactions were different: some moved away, some woke up and expressed dissatisfaction, some sat peacefully, offering their shoulder to the “tired” person. But based on the video recordings received, a conclusion was drawn: people, for the most part, react negatively to a “foreign object” in their personal space and experience unpleasant emotions. But this is just the “tip of the iceberg” and the psychological rejection of people from each other can be interpreted in completely different ways.

When conducting your own personal experiments, always be careful and make sure that your research does not cause any harm to others.

We invite you to complete a small task and conduct your own experiment:

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Methods of psychological research: table

Before briefly understanding individual research methods in psychology, let's look at which methodologies are included in the individual groups. To do this, we have compiled a clear table of research methods in psychology:

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In scientific research, different methods from each group are used. Their use depends on the goals and objectives and on certain stages of work on a course or diploma project. You can also use several methods from the same group. This helps to consider the subject of study from different angles and make more informed conclusions.

Introspection

Self-observation is observing yourself and the characteristics of your behavior. This method can be used in the form of self-control and plays a big role in psychology and human life. However, as a method, self-observation to a greater extent can only state the fact of something, but not its cause (forgot something, but it is not known why). That is why introspection, although an important research method, cannot be the main and independent one in the process of learning the essence of mental manifestations.

The quality of the method we are considering is directly dependent on a person’s self-esteem. For example, people with low self-esteem are more predisposed to self-observation. And the consequence of hypertrophied introspection can be self-digging, fixation on wrong actions, feelings of guilt, self-justification, etc.

Adequate and effective self-observation is facilitated by:

• Keeping personal records (diary);
• Comparison of self-observation with observations of others;
• Increased self-esteem;
• Psychological trainings on personal growth and development.

The use of introspection in life is a very effective way to understand yourself, the motives of your actions, get rid of some problems in life and resolve difficult situations.

EXAMPLE:

You want to increase your efficiency in daily activities (communicating with people, at work, at home) or get rid of bad habits (negative thinking, irritability, even smoking). Make it a rule to be in a state of mindfulness as often as possible every day: pay attention to your thoughts (what you are thinking about now) and your actions (what you are doing at the moment). Try to analyze what causes certain reactions in you (anger, irritation, envy, joy, satisfaction). What “hooks” do people and circumstances pull you on? Get yourself a notebook in which you will write down all your observations. Just look at what is happening inside you and what contributes to it. After analyzing after some time (a week, a month) what you have learned about yourself, you will be able to draw a conclusion about what you should cultivate in yourself and what you should start getting rid of.

Regular practice of self-observation has a very positive effect on a person’s inner world and, as a result, on its external manifestations.

Organizational research methods in psychology

Organizational methods are those methods that define the form of scientific research in psychology. They are general scientific and answer the question: how exactly will the study of psychological problems be carried out?

Comparative method

These are all methodologies that are based on comparisons of different groups of people or psychological phenomena. They can be compared according to different indicators:

• development of people at different age stages;
• ability to cope with difficulties;
• reactions to certain circumstances, and so on.

The comparative method is also called the cross-sectional method. This means that it is applied one-time to obtain indicators characteristic of a given moment. Such methods are more often used for socio-psychological research of individuals and large groups.

Example: comparison of psychological resilience of men and women in stressful situations.

Longitudinal method

Unlike the comparative method, the longitudinal method assumes some duration in time. Most often, such techniques are used to study personality in psychology in order to see dynamic changes.

The main difficulty of this methodology is to organize constant monitoring of the object, which will last several years. Questions also arise with the purity of the experiment - too many factors can affect the final result.

Example: the role of school education in raising children

The longest psychological experiment lasted 75 years! During this time, Harvard University scientists observed a group of 724 people, which included both people from wealthy families and residents from disadvantaged areas. The purpose of the study is to understand what determines health and happiness. The conclusion was unexpected - the most important stimulus in life is close relationships with others.

Complex method

This is an interdisciplinary research method that helps to study a person and his psychological characteristics from different angles. For example, with psychological and biological.

Example: moral development and choice of value orientations in adolescence and youth.

Psychological testing

Psychological testing belongs to the section of psychodiagnostics and deals with the study of psychological qualities and personality traits through the use of psychological tests. This method is often used in counseling, psychotherapy, and by employers when hiring. Psychological tests are needed when you need to learn about a person’s personality in more detail, which cannot be done through a conversation or survey.

The main characteristics of psychological tests are:

• Validity is the correspondence of the data obtained from the test to the characteristic for which the test is carried out;
• Reliability – consistency of the results obtained during repeated testing;
• Reliability is the property of a test to give true results, even with intentional or unintentional attempts to distort them by the subjects;
• Representativeness – compliance with standards.

A truly effective test is created through trial and modification (changing the number of questions, their composition and wording). The test must go through a multi-stage verification and adaptation procedure. An effective psychological test is a standardized test, based on the results of which it becomes possible to assess the psychophysiological and personal characteristics, as well as the knowledge, skills and abilities of the subject.

There are different types of tests:

• Career guidance tests - to determine a person’s predisposition to any type of activity or suitability for a position;
• Personality tests - to study character, needs, emotions, abilities and other personality traits;
• Intelligence tests - to study the degree of development of intelligence;
• Verbal tests - to study a person’s ability to describe actions performed in words;
• Achievement tests - to assess the level of mastery of knowledge and skills.

There are other test options aimed at studying a person and his personality traits: color tests, linguistic tests, questionnaires, handwriting analysis, psychometrics, lie detector, various diagnostic methods, etc.

Psychological tests are very convenient to use in everyday life in order to better know yourself or the people you care about.

EXAMPLE:

Tired of making money in a way that does not bring moral, psychological, or emotional satisfaction. Dreaming of finally quitting and doing something else. But you don’t know what. Find some career guidance tests and test yourself. It is quite possible that you will learn some things about yourself that you had no idea about before. The results of such tests can help you discover new facets of yourself and will help you understand what you would really like to do and what you are inclined to do. And knowing all this, it is much easier to find something you like. In addition, this is also good because a person, doing what he loves and enjoying it, becomes happier and more satisfied in life and, on top of everything else, begins to earn more.

Psychological testing promotes a deeper understanding of yourself, your needs and abilities, and often indicates the direction for further personal development.

Interpretive methods in psychology

And the latest methods of psychological research, without which no work can do, are interpretive. This is the methodology on the basis of which conclusions will be drawn regarding the project studied.

Competently interpreting data is an important stage of work.

Genetic method

The genetic method involves a linear study of materials, which will be based on time periods or important life stages of people. It is more often used in longitudinal studies.

Structural methods

Structural methods place the main emphasis on looking for unifying features, identifying common features and systematizing. There are several varieties of such methods:

• typology;
• classification.

They are often used as the main methods for socio-psychological research of groups and communities.

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The result is an impressive list. But now you know what methods to use to organize and conduct scientific research, as well as process and draw the right conclusions. And if you don’t have time to write a coursework or diploma in psychology yourself, contact our student service.

Biographical method

The biographical method in psychology is a way by which a person’s life path is examined, diagnosed, corrected and designed. Various modifications of this method began to develop at the beginning of the 20th century. In modern biographical methods, a personality is studied in the context of history and prospects for its individual development. This involves obtaining data, the source of which is autobiographical techniques (autobiographies, interviews, questionnaires), as well as eyewitness accounts, analysis of notes, letters, diaries, etc.

This method is often used by managers of various enterprises, biographers studying the lives of certain people, and simply in communication between unfamiliar people. It is easy to use when communicating with a person to compile his psychological portrait.

EXAMPLE:

You are the head of an organization and you are hiring a new employee. You need to find out what kind of person he is, what his personality traits are, what his life experiences are, etc. In addition to filling out questionnaires and conducting interviews, you can use the biographical method for this. Talk to the person, let him tell you facts from his biography and some significant moments in his life path. Ask what he can tell you about himself and his life from memory. This method does not require special skills or preparation. Such a conversation can take place in a light, relaxed atmosphere and, most likely, will be pleasant for both interlocutors.

Using the biographical method is a great way to get to know a new person and an opportunity to see his strengths and weaknesses, as well as imagine a possible perspective of interaction with him.

Classification of research methods in psychology

In modern psychological science, many methods are used to classify scientific research methods. We will look at one of the most popular, which includes four large groups:

• organizational methods;
• empirical methods;
• methods that allow data processing;
• interpretative methods.

Projective methods are often used in child psychology

Survey

A survey is a verbal-communicative method, during which interaction occurs between the researcher and the person being studied. The psychologist asks questions, and the subject (respondent) gives answers to them. This method is considered one of the most common in psychology. The questions in it depend on what information is required to be obtained during the study. As a rule, a survey is a mass method because it is used to obtain information about a group of people, rather than about one person.

Surveys are divided into:

• Standardized – strict and giving a general idea of ​​the problem;
• Non-standardized ones are less strict and allow you to study the nuances of the problem.

In the process of creating surveys, the first step is to formulate program questions that can only be understood by specialists. After this, they are translated into survey questions that are more understandable to the average person.

Types of surveys:

• Written allows you to gain superficial knowledge about the problem;
• Oral - allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than written;
• Questioning – preliminary answers to questions before the main conversation;
• Personality tests - to determine the mental characteristics of a person;
• Interview – personal conversation (also applies to the conversation method).

When writing questions you need to adhere to some rules:

• Separateness and conciseness;
• Exclusion of specific terms;
• Brevity;
• Specificity;
• No hints;
• Questions require non-standard answers;
• Questions should not be off-putting;
• Questions should not suggest anything.

Depending on the tasks assigned, questions are divided into several types:

• Open – offering answers in a free form;
• Closed – offering prepared answers;
• Subjective – about a person’s attitude towards something/someone;
• Projective - about a third person (without indicating the respondent).

A survey, as already mentioned, is most suitable for obtaining information from a large number of people. This method allows you to determine the needs of the masses or determine their opinion on a specific issue.

EXAMPLE:

You are the director of a company providing any services and you need to find out the opinions of your employees on improving working conditions and attracting more clients. In order to do this as quickly and as efficiently as possible, you can draw up (for example, together with a staff analyst) a series of questions, the answers to which will help you solve your problems. Namely: to make the work process of employees more pleasant for them and to find some ways (possibly very effective) to expand the client base. Based on the results of such a survey, you will receive information on very important points. Firstly, you will know exactly what changes your employees need so that the atmosphere in the team becomes better and work brings positive emotions. Secondly, you will have a list of all possible methods to improve your business. And thirdly, you will probably be able to identify a promising and promising person from the total mass of employees who can be promoted, thereby improving the overall performance of the enterprise.

Surveys and questionnaires are a great way to obtain important and relevant information on current topics from a large number of people.

Quantitative and qualitative research methods in psychology

To organize psychological research, organizational methods are used to conduct empirical ones. And for data processing - methods of quantitative and qualitative analysis. Let's talk about the most common ones.

Statistical analysis method

The method of statistical or quantitative analysis allows you to collect statistical data obtained during the study. On their basis, larger-scale phenomena are studied.

Example: general statistics of people suffering from psycho-emotional disorders.

Qualitative analysis method

Unlike quantitative analysis, quantitative analysis does not involve counting data. With its help, the obtained indicators are described based on the necessary psychological characteristics. This analysis strengthens the reliability of the study.

Example: the level of severity of psycho-emotional disorders with which people most often turn to psychologists.

Conversation

Conversation is a form of observation. It can be oral or written. Its goal is to identify a special range of issues that are inaccessible during direct observation. Conversation is widely used in psychological research and has enormous practical significance. Therefore, it can be considered, albeit not the main, but an independent method.

The conversation is conducted in the form of a relaxed dialogue with the person – the object of research. The effectiveness of the conversation depends on the fulfillment of a number of requirements:

• You need to think through the plan and content of the conversation in advance;
• Establish contact with the person being studied;
• Eliminate all moments that can cause discomfort (alertness, tension, etc.);
• All questions asked during the conversation must be understandable;
• Leading questions should not lead to answers;
• During a conversation, you need to observe the person’s reaction and compare his behavior with his answers;
• You should remember the content of the conversation so that you can record and analyze it later;
• Do not take notes during the conversation, because this may cause discomfort, mistrust, etc.;
• Pay attention to the “subtext”: omissions, slips of the tongue, etc.

Conversation as a psychological method helps to obtain information from the “primary source” and establish more trusting relationships between people. With the help of a well-conducted conversation, you can not only get answers to questions, but also get to know your interlocutor better, understand what kind of person he is and “how he lives.”

EXAMPLE:

Everyday. You notice that your close friend has been walking around for days with a drooping and dejected look. He answers questions in monosyllables, rarely smiles, and avoids his usual company. The changes are obvious, but he himself does not comment on it. This person is close to you and his fate is not indifferent to you. What to do? How to find out what is happening and help him? The answer is on the surface - talk to him, have a conversation. Try to find a moment when no one will be around or specifically invite him to have a cup of coffee with you. Do not start the conversation directly - with phrases like: “What happened?” or “Come on, tell me what you have!” Even if you have a good friendly relationship, start the conversation with sincere words that you have noticed changes in him, that he is dear to you and that you would like to help him, advise him something. “Turn” the person towards you. Let him feel that it is REALLY important for you to know what happened and that you will understand him in any case. Most likely, under your kind pressure, your friend will “turn off” his defense mechanism and tell you what’s going on. Almost every person needs other people to take part in their life. It is important to feel that he is not alone and cares. Especially to your friends.

A conversation is always good when there is an opportunity to communicate one-on-one, because it is during a conversation (official or confidential) that you can safely talk about something that, for some reason, you cannot talk about in the hustle and bustle of ordinary affairs.

The methods of theoretical psychology are far from exhausted here. There are many variations and combinations of them. But we got to know the main ones. Now, in order for the understanding of the methods of psychology to become more complete, it is necessary to consider practical methods.

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Suggestion

Suggestion is the process of inserting certain formulas, attitudes, positions or views into the person being studied outside of his conscious control. Suggestion can be direct or indirect communicative (verbal or emotional). The task of this method is to form the required state or point of view. The means of suggestion do not play a special role. The main task is to implement it. That is why emotional imprinting, confusion, distraction, intonation, remarks, and even turning off a person’s conscious control (hypnosis, alcohol, drugs) are widely used during suggestion.

From other appeals (requests, threats, instructions, demands, etc.), which are also methods of psychological influence, suggestion differs in involuntary and automatic reactions, and also in that it does not imply volitional efforts made consciously. In the process of suggestion, everything happens by itself. Suggestions affect every person, but to varying degrees.

There are several types of suggestions:

• Direct – influence through words (orders, commands, instructions);
• Indirect – hidden (intermediate actions, stimuli);
• Intentional;
• Unintentional;
• Positive;
• Negative.

There are different methods of suggestion:

• Techniques of direct suggestion - advice, command, instruction, order;
• Techniques of indirect suggestion - condemnation, approval, hint;
• Techniques of hidden suggestion - providing all options, illusion of choice, truism.

Initially, suggestion was used unconsciously by people whose communication skills had developed to a high level. Today, suggestion plays a huge role in psycho- and hypnotherapy. Very often this method is used in hypnosis or in other cases when a person is in a state of trance. Suggestions have been a part of human life since childhood, because... used in the process of education, advertising, politics, relationships, etc.

EXAMPLE:

A widely known example of suggestion is called the “placebo” effect, the phenomenon of improvement in a patient’s condition when taking a medicine that, in his opinion, has certain properties, when in fact it is a dummy. You can apply this method in practice. If, for example, one of your loved ones suddenly has a headache, give him a simple empty capsule under the guise of a headache remedy - after a while the “medicine” will work and the headache will stop. This is the “placebo” effect.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement is the immediate reaction (positive or negative) of the researcher (or the environment) to the actions of the subject. The reaction must actually be instantaneous, so that the subject immediately has the opportunity to associate it with his action. If the reaction is positive, then this is a sign that you should continue to do or act in a similar way. If the reaction is negative, then vice versa.

Reinforcement can be of the following types:

• Positive – correct behavior/action is reinforced;
• Negative – wrong behavior/action is prevented;
• Conscious;
• Unconscious;
• Natural – happens by accident (burn, electric shock, etc.);
• Intentional – conscious action (education, training);
• One-time;
• Systematic;
• Direct;
• Indirect;
• Basic;
• Secondary;
• Full;
• Partial.

Reinforcement is a huge part of human life. It, like suggestion, has been present in her since childhood in the process of upbringing and gaining life experience.

EXAMPLE:

Examples of reinforcement are around us at every step: if you put your hand in boiling water or try to touch the fire, you will certainly get burned - this is negative spontaneous reinforcement. The dog, following some command, receives a treat and repeats it with pleasure - positive intentional reinforcement. A child who gets a bad grade at school will be punished at home, and he will try not to give any more bad grades, because if he does, he will be punished again - one-time/systematic negative reinforcement. The bodybuilder knows that only regular training will give results - systematic positive reinforcement.

Psychological consultation

Psychological consultation is, as a rule, a one-time conversation between a psychologist and a client, orienting him in the current life situation. It implies a quick start to work, because... The client does not need any special preparation and the specialist, together with him, can understand the circumstances and outline steps to achieve the desired result.

The main problems for which people seek advice from a psychologist are:

• Relationships – jealousy, infidelity, communication difficulties, raising children;
• Individual problems – health, bad luck, self-organization;
• Work - dismissal, intolerance to criticism, low wages.

Psychological consultation consists of several stages:

• Contact;
• Request;
• Plan;
• Setting up for work;
• Implementation;
• Hometasks;
• Completion.

The method of psychological consultation, like any other method of psychology, consists of a combination of both theoretical and practical research methods. Today, there are various variations and types of consultations. Turning to a psychologist for help can be a solution to many life problems and a way out of difficult situations.

EXAMPLE:

The impetus for resorting to psychological consultation can be absolutely any life situation that a person cannot cope with on his own. These include problems at work, troubles in family relationships, depression, loss of interest in life, inability to get rid of bad habits, disharmony, struggle with oneself and many other reasons. Therefore, if you feel that you have been overcome and disturbed by some obsessive thoughts or conditions for a long period of time and you understand that you cannot cope with it alone, and there is no one nearby who could support you, then without a shadow of a doubt and embarrassment, seek help from a specialist. Today there are a huge number of offices, clinics and psychological assistance centers where experienced, highly qualified psychologists provide their services.

This concludes our consideration of the classification of the main methods of psychology. Other (auxiliary) methods include: the method of experimental psychological tests, the method of explanation and teaching, training, coaching, business and role-playing games, counseling, the method of correcting behavior and condition, the method of transforming living and working space and many others.

Any mental process must be considered by psychological science as it really is. And this presupposes its study in close connection with the surrounding world and the external conditions in which a person lives, because they are reflected in his psyche. Just as the reality around us is in constant movement and change, its reflection in the human psyche cannot be unchanged. In order to learn to more deeply understand the features of a person’s inner world, and the essence of things in general, one should come to the realization of the fact that one of the foundations of this understanding is precisely human psychology.

Nowadays, an incalculable amount of materials for studying psychological science and its features is freely available. In order for you not to get lost in all this diversity and know where to start studying, we suggest you familiarize yourself with the works of such authors as A. G. Maklakov, S. L. Rubinstein, Yu. B. Gippenreiter, A. V. Petrovsky, N. A. Rybnikov, S. Buhler, B. G. Ananyev, N.A. Loginova. And right now you can watch an interesting video on the topic of psychological methods: