Definition of concepts
This section of psychological science combines the most important concepts for studying the internal connections and mental processes of an individual. At the same time, different psychologists offer different approaches to what is the object of research. For some, this is a single representative of humanity, who is the bearer of consciousness. For others, it is the same, but as an element of social relations. In this regard, a generalized definition is born that understands a person as a being distinguished by conscious mental activity and being a subject of social interactions.
PL Items
- temperament;
- moral aspects;
- individual's motives;
- intellectual characteristics;
- roles in society.
What is personality: a brief definition in psychology
In simpler terms, this is a combination of the following properties:
- abilities (mental and physical internal resources);
- character (that which shapes behavior and views on the world);
- worldview (a special vision of reality and individual attitude towards it);
- emotionality (expression of reaction to external stimuli);
- focus (the ability to determine values and guidelines, set goals and achieve them);
- general portrait (external features - gait, habits, facial expressions, gestures);
- temperament (unchangeable attitudes that influence the formation of behavioral factors - melancholy, choleric, phlegmatic, sanguine);
- motivation (what determines a person’s actions);
- experience (acquired skills and knowledge).
Definition
The term “personality” itself originated in ancient times. Then theaters were widespread everywhere, in which each actor for his role had his own mask, reflecting his essence. It was called by the Latin word persono, “to speak through an opening.” Thus, a persona is a certain type of person, a character with his own characteristics and actions.
Later in Ancient Rome, the term persona was used more widely and meant a person answerable to the law. By the way, slaves were not “persons” and were not considered a person.
From the point of view of different approaches and studies, completely different definitions of personality and its properties are given. For example, a biological or medical approach implies that personality is genetic prerequisites, phylogenetic and ontogenetic characteristics in combination with experiences acquired throughout life and behavioral characteristics.
The social approach considers personality as a product of the influence of culture, social environment, a certain social role and their influence on development. Both psychometric and experimental studies speak about personality only after studying its various properties, reflecting its structure, measuring various indicators and observations.
Basic personality theories that are the basis of psychology (briefly)
In psychological science, there are a number of concepts aimed at studying various manifestations of personal characteristics.
Deep (psychodynamic)
Its foundation is the teaching of S. Freud about the unconscious. Within this paradigm, libido (Eros) and the death drive (Thanatos) are considered to be the prime movers in the formation of the individual as part of society. The Austrian psychologist identified three elements on which human mental processes are built:
- “it” (the unconscious) is responsible for the desire for pleasure;
- “ego”/“I” (conscious) takes a balancing position between two extremes, makes a decision;
- The “super-ego” determines moral values and ideals.
When the “I” cannot ensure the harmonious coexistence of other parts of the psyche, internal conflict arises. Later, these ideas were rethought in the works of A. Adler and K. Jung. The first argued that personality is an integral system embedded in a larger social mechanism. He called the desire for superiority the primary basis for its formation. The second divided the unconscious into personal and collective.
Phenomenological theory
She speaks of the individual as an independent decision-making subject who is fully responsible for his life. That is, an individual is not a unit totally subordinate to social processes, but a self-valued developing structure. Researcher K. Rogers believed that the most important motivator of intrapersonal development is the desire for self-improvement.
Dispositional concept
Followers of this idea: G. Eysenck, G. Allport, R. Cattell. Scientists believed that each person is nothing more than a carrier of a set of unique characteristics (dispositions, that is, predispositions to perceive and respond to a problem in one way or another). They are unchangeable and do not depend on experiences, memories, or circumstances. Thus, personality can be described using a number of characteristic traits inherent in it. For example, an individual may have a tendency toward alcoholism or criminal activity, which will reveal itself under certain circumstances and conditions. Dispositions can be both negative and positive.
Psychologist Daria Milai
Make an appointment
Behavioral theories
Representatives of these directions define identity as a combination of an individual's life experience, and its development is associated with direct contact with the outside world through reflective reactions and social skills. Within this point of view, two more vectors are distinguished:
- Behavioral. Followers of this concept understand behavior as a given, determined by the environment.
- Cognitivist. Characterizes the personal system as a structure that largely depends on internal attitudes, paradigms, requirements and assessments.
Cognitive theories
Researchers in this area take behavioral psychology as a basis. This teaching assumes that the formation of intrapersonal characteristics arises in the process of cognition and independent determination of development paths. To do this, a person uses certain model-constructs, thanks to which he converges with other people (with similar constructs).
Key properties
These are stable manifestations of mental activity that have a direct impact on human behavior and his relationships with the world.
Capabilities
These are the distinctive features of the psyche on which the successful or unsuccessful acquisition of new skills and knowledge depends. Opportunities for mastering a certain type of activity are of several types.
Elementary and complex
The first (simplest) are associated with the work of the senses (sense of smells, tastes, ability to distinguish colors). The latter relate to the processes of comprehending culture (these are creative, analytical skills) and are not innate.
General and special
Universal abilities (with normal formation of the body) are present in the arsenal of every person and differ only in the level of development. These include motor and mental capabilities, based on which we can talk about what activities a person will achieve success in (for example, in sports, research, training). Not everyone has special, individual characteristics. To reveal them, certain inclinations and inclinations are required. These include creative skills (acting, literary), which can be applied in narrow areas.
Face-to-face consultation
What are the features and advantages of face-to-face consultation?
Find out more
Skype consultation
What are the features and benefits of Skype consultations?
Find out more
Theoretical and practical
The former determine the individual’s orientation towards comprehending tasks associated with the abstract-logical type of thinking, that is, with the construction and analysis of theory. The latter require the ability to find solutions in specific life situations and apply knowledge in practice.
Educational and creative
As the name implies, some abilities characterize an individual as a learner (able to assimilate new information, acquire skills), others are aimed at the ability to create new ideas, make discoveries, and produce elements of culture.
Communicative and subject-activity
The former include social interactions: communication, networking, perceptions of others, and ways of responding to the outside world. The second relate to the person’s contact with inanimate objects.
Temperament
This is a set of traits that determine the characteristics of human behavior and his mental processes. There are four main types: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic. Temperament affects the speed and intensity of perception, memorization, information processing, life pace, rhythm and direction of activity.
Character
This concept unites all the methods obtained under certain circumstances and social conditions for an individual to contact reality and people (his behavior in society and reactions to the actions of others), as well as the way of his life. Characteristic traits are divided into three groups: communicative (related to interpersonal communication), business (aimed at organizing work activities), and strong-willed (dedication and perseverance).
Will
This is the ability of an individual to consciously control their mental states and actions. It is directly related to an individual’s potential to make rational, informed decisions, his tendency to self-restraint and the ability to overcome obstacles on the way to achieving a goal. The volitional effort itself is not accompanied by a feeling of satisfaction. It occurs after obtaining the desired result, which would have been impossible without super-effort.
Emotions
These are experiences with a positive or negative connotation that accompany the satisfaction of vital needs. There are several most significant emotional groups:
- protozoa (related to organics and physiology);
- affects (short-term, violent outbursts);
- mood (the general state of an individual at a specific point in time);
- feelings (directed towards a specific object);
- stress (the combination of the process of internal arousal and physical well-being);
- passion (uncontrollable manifestations of emotionality).
Motivation
This is the name given to the reasons that motivate a person to commit a particular action. Motives can be conscious or unconscious, but it is always an internal impulse that depends on:
- needs (needs of the individual);
- stimulus (factor indicating the need for action);
- intentions (deliberate decision);
- motives (unconscious aspirations).
Methodology for compiling psychological characteristics
Psychological characteristics of a person are compiled by psychologists using the following methods:
- Observation. Through specially organized observation, the psychologist receives information about the characteristics of an individual’s behavior. In psychological characteristics, observation results indirectly reflect personality characteristics.
- Psychodiagnostic methods. Using personality tests and questionnaires, the psychologist determines the client’s temperament type, his interests and inclinations, and the prevailing motives for his activity. This information is the main one in the psychological characteristics.
- Sociometry. With the help of this diagnostic tool, the psychologist receives information about the socio-psychological status of the individual in the educational or work community. Sociometry allows us to identify the characteristics of a person’s interpersonal interaction with friends and colleagues.
- Interview. If sufficient information about a person cannot be obtained through tests, the psychologist develops a series of questions that he asks the client. This method of collecting information is used to clarify facts and eliminate contradictions.
Psychological characteristics begin with the listing of a person’s personal data: indicating the last name, first name and patronymic, date of birth, place of residence, reporting information about family members and characteristics of family upbringing. The following are described:
- inclinations and interests;
- personality abilities;
- characteristics of temperament and character;
- a person's attitude towards himself;
- a person's attitude towards other people;
- a person's attitude towards work.
An example of a person's psychological characteristics
Letovaltsev Andrey Yurievich
Date 04/19/2008.
Mother: Letovaltseva Anna Gennadievna.
Father: Letovaltsev Yuri Alekseevich.
Place of residence: Novodvinsk
The child is raised in a complete family. Parents take an active part in the boy's life. For Andrey, his older brother is a role model.
The boy shows interest in exact sciences and has a high level of development of logical thinking. For two years, Andrey has been attending robotics courses and participating in city and regional competitions.
The boy's level of voluntary attention is above average. There are no signs of fatigue when performing work. The pace of work is high.
The boy has a high level of visual memory development. Auditory memory is moderately developed. The dominant channel for obtaining information is visual.
The predominant motive for activity is to avoid failure. The level of anxiety corresponds to the age norm.
In the course of solving intellectual problems, Andrey demonstrates independence and rationality. Willingly comes to the aid of his comrades. Shows interest in pair work. When working in a group, he imposes his opinion on his comrades and makes many comments. He takes criticism addressed to him painfully.
In a group of peers, the boy strives to become a leader. He is ambitious and active. Andrey tries to assert himself at the expense of other children. However, in order to become a leader, the boy lacks sensitivity and attentiveness to others. In addition, the boy has high self-esteem.
Andrey has a choleric type of temperament. The young man is emotional, assertive, and purposeful. He often has conflicts in his relationships with peers. Poor development of communication skills does not allow making concessions and finding a compromise solution to controversial situations. The boy is characterized by sudden mood changes.
There are outbreaks of aggression in behavior. It is difficult for a boy to control his emotional reactions.
Based on the results of psychological diagnostics, Andrey can be recommended a course of individual sessions with a psychologist aimed at correcting the emotional-volitional sphere. The boy will also benefit from group classes in the form of training to develop communication skills.
Personal development
When studying this aspect of an individual’s life, several areas for research can be identified:
- The process itself, the mechanism of formation of the personal structure.
- The results of this formation.
- Ways and methods of influence of society on a person, his upbringing.
- Self-development.
PL sections
- pathopsychology (study of disease states);
- defect psychology (concerns deviations in the functioning of the psyche: speech disorders, hearing loss, vision loss, mental retardation);
- age;
- differential (studying differences between different groups of people).
Diagnostics
Psychodiagnostics deals with methods of studying the properties of the psyche and personality.
There are two main directions - test and projective.
The test consists of forming a scale that is formed when answering questions. This scale reflects certain character traits, personality orientation, and its volitional, emotional or behavioral characteristics.
These include the Binet-Stanford intelligence test, the Luscher color test (emotions), the extra- and introversion scale, the test of temperament types and many others. Some of them are processed on a computer to obtain results.
Projective techniques - drawings, role-playing games or stories. Their meaning lies in the projection of their mental traits and relationships onto the task. Their founder was K. Jung, who proposed psychodiagnostic conversations, then Rorschach created his “ink blot” test and Rosenzweig created his frustration test.
Later, many variations arose with the task of describing vague pictures, drawing a person, a tree, a family, etc.
Psychology has classified many different personality traits. Thanks to different approaches and methods, the very concept of personality has also been significantly enriched. The practical application of this knowledge is relevant for self-knowledge, in the work of psychologists, as well as in psychotherapy and psychiatry in order to clarify the diagnosis and treatment.
Author: Natalya Kalegova
Basic theories of personality research
Previously, I described general concepts and approaches to considering the concept of personal structure. Now I’ll tell you about specific works of famous scientists, which will help you find the vector for self-knowledge that is closest to you.
Psychological system of Sigmund Freud
In addition to identifying the three components of the inner self, the psychoanalyst viewed the person in a psychosexual way. He argued that the motives that determine behavior are often unconscious and largely depend on the influence of sexual desire on the psyche. Another popular idea involves sublimation, a procedure for redirecting energy. By studying the basics of psychoanalysis, we can analyze the influence of the unconscious on our thoughts and behavior.
Ask a question
Young's analytical system
He described personality development as a desire for integrity. Its potential is associated simultaneously with aspirations for the future and individual innate characteristics. This concept states that initially everyone has a set of characteristics and predispositions, which in the process of socialization only develop and are revealed to one degree or another. Knowing about these attitudes that we have at birth, we can find tools to make life more effective.
William James' theory of personality psychology
The scientist analyzes the concept of individuality in three categories:
- Structure (components of the mental).
- Self-esteem (based on feelings and emotions in relation to the first point).
- Actions caused by components and evaluation.
Psychosynthesis by Assagioli
The researcher identified eight main areas that characterize the psyche: lower, middle, higher and collective unconscious, consciousness, personal and highest “I”, subpersonality. He saw integrity in the unity and harmonious coexistence of all these components.
Adler's individual psychology
In the works of this scientist one can find such a concept as “lifestyle”. It is reflected in certain attitudes formed under the influence of society on the individual. There are four types of such paradigms, according to which a person interacts with reality: controlling, socially useful, avoiding and receiving.
The physiological approach of Ernst Kretschmer and William Sheldon
This concept pays attention not so much to mental processes as to the state of the body at the physical level. For example, within the framework of the teaching, 4 types of body constitution were identified, which were directly associated with the states and orientation of the psyche (athletic, dysplastic, leptosomatic, picnic).
Allport's dispositional study
According to this theory, each person is individual and has a unique set of personality traits. Here the concept of “proprium” arises, which means a distinctive feature that determines human identity.
Concept by Eduard Spranger
The scientist identified six psychological types associated with various categories of worldview:
- economic;
- aesthetic;
- political;
- religious;
- social;
- theoretical.
Thus, individuality is understood by him through a set of values inherent in the individual.
Intrapsychology of Kurt Lewin
The researcher believed that the driving factors in the formation of the “I” are located within the individual himself and in his relationships with the outside world. These ideas are called dynamic (typological) theory.
Existential analysis of Viktor Frankl
The author called freedom, responsibility and the meaning of life the fundamental engines of development.
Phenomenological (humanistic) approach
The most famous researchers in these areas were A. Maslow and R. Rogers. They understood the formation of an individual in society as a desire for self-actualization, the realization of internal potential in the presence of subjective experiences.
Philosophical and psychological concept of Erich Fromm
The psychologist clearly separates individuality from social influence and its adaptation to the majority.
Character
From ancient Greek, the word “character” literally sounds like “sign”, “trait”, “distinctive object”.
Giphy
Character - refers to the mental properties of a person, as an identifier of an individual’s behavior model, and is manifested in his attitude towards society, himself, other people and work. Character is a set of relatively constant personality traits and qualities, such as intellectual, volitional and emotional. Which, in turn, give rise to individual and social behavior of the individual, and interaction with others.
Knowledge of character helps to consciously perceive those traits of an individual that are manifested in his actions from the point of view of logical and internal consistency.
Character is closely related to temperament. Each of us is “filled” with a unique set of characteristics. That is why each of us is unique and inimitable in our own way.
