LECTURE 2. Psychological mechanisms of perception. Psychology of communication
LECTURE 2.
Psychological mechanisms of perception.
(2 hours). Lecture outline:
Communication as perception.
Understanding.
Stereotyping.
Where does communication begin? Of course, “at first sight”, i.e. communication begins with observing the interlocutor, his appearance, voice, and demeanor. Psychologists say in this regard that one person perceives another. Effective communication is impossible without correct perception, assessment and mutual understanding of partners. That is why we begin our study with the main and important side of communication - the perceptual one.
Perception (or perception) is well studied in social psychology, and the term “social perception” (social perception) was first introduced by the American psychologist J. Bruner in 1947. He drew attention to the fact that, along with individual differences, there are general socio-psychological mechanisms perception. Various factors influence how people perceive and evaluate each other. Research has confirmed that children and adults differ in social perception. Children are more focused on the perception of appearance (clothes, hairstyle, etc.); they recognize a person’s emotional state better by facial expressions than by gestures. In addition, the observer’s profession has a strong influence on the perception process. Thus, when assessing the same person, a salesperson will evaluate his appearance, a philologist will evaluate his speech characteristics, and a physician will evaluate his physical health.
However, in general, a person is faced with the task not simply of “perceiving”, but rather of getting to know another person. In the course of cognition, an emotional assessment of a person is carried out and an attempt is made to understand the logic of his actions and, on this basis, to build his own behavior. People entering into communication differ from each other in life experience, social status (Social status is the position (position) of an individual or group in the social system, determined by a number of characteristics: profession, education, economic, family-age, ethnic, etc. .), intellectual development, etc. What signs allow us to judge, for example, the superiority of our interlocutor in terms of social status? Research has shown that the process of forming a first impression of a person is essential. The first impression is greatly influenced by: 1) a person’s appearance (clothing, hairstyle, jewelry, glasses, insignia; in some cases, “clothing” such as a car, office decoration, office supplies, etc. is considered); 2) a person’s behavior (how he stands, walks, sits, talks, where his gaze is directed, etc.). Appearance and demeanor are factors of superiority, since they always contain elements that indicate a person’s belonging to a certain social group or his orientation towards a certain group.
In earlier times, there were certain rules and regulations that dictated what and who could or could not wear. In certain eras, regulations were developed to the smallest detail and had a certain meaning. In our time, when there are no clear regulations, the role of clothing nevertheless remains significant. Knowing the “secrets” of clothing, you can create a certain image in your communication partner, increase (if necessary, decrease) your importance and prestige. For example, when you are going to an exam and putting on a formal suit and shirt and tie, you are most likely trying to slightly increase your social status. If the teacher wears jeans and a sweater for the same exam, then he is trying to weaken the factor of his superiority in order to improve interaction with the student, i.e. with you. Properly selected clothing will help create a favorable impression, inspire trust on the part of your partner and create the image of an honest, reliable interlocutor.
What in clothing indicates superiority? Firstly, the price. The price of clothing is determined by quality, as well as by the frequency of occurrence of a given model (scarcity) and its fashionability. Secondly, the silhouette of the clothes. “High status” for both women and men is considered to be a silhouette resembling an elongated rectangle with emphasized corners, “low status” is a silhouette resembling a ball in shape.
For example, a sweater, especially a voluminous and fluffy one, jeans or soft trousers are incompatible with high status. However, at a friendly party, a soft sweater (pullover) is perceived better than a formal suit. Thirdly, the color of the clothes. Please note that specific colors may have different meanings in different countries. In European clothing, achromatic colors, i.e., black, gray and white, are considered a sign of high status (regardless of fashion trends); the brighter and more saturated the color, the lower the person's perceived status. All these signs are important in interaction; they should not be considered separately.
In addition, various details, such as decorations, influence the first impression. Massive gold signet rings for men, as well as large diamond rings for women, although they indicate their financial capabilities, can sometimes cause an undesirable effect (“disgusting jewelry may appear to a communication partner as cunning, insincere, and prone to dominance , claiming increased attention to their person.
In the manner of behavior, as in clothing, there are always elements that allow one to judge the status of the interlocutor (gait, manner of sitting and standing). For example, the results of experiments showed that people around them prefer people who sit freely on a chair, slightly tilting their body forward. And, conversely, people who sit straight on a chair, leaning slightly back, cause a negative attitude; the same applies to the manner of sitting on a chair with crossed arms or legs.
When perceiving a person, the factor of attractiveness is of great importance.
The difficulty in determining this factor is due to the fact that we are accustomed to considering attractiveness as an individual impression. Any attempt to generalize the signs of attractiveness “encounters” internal resistance. Different peoples in different historical periods had and have their own canons of beauty, so the factor of attractiveness is determined not by the shape of the eyes and hair color, but by the social significance of this or that characteristic of a person. After all, there are types of appearance that are approved and disapproved by society or a specific social group, which means that attractiveness is an approximation to the type of appearance that is maximally approved by the group to which we belong.
Another important factor of perception
is
the attitude towards us from others.
At the same time, people who treat us well are valued much higher than those who treat us poorly. In the experiment, psychologists, having identified the subjects' opinions on a number of issues, introduced them to the opinions of other people on the same issues and asked them to evaluate these people. It turned out that the closer someone else’s opinion is to one’s own, the higher the assessment of the person who expressed this opinion. In this experiment, agreement was assessed using direct questions. However, there are a large number of indirect signs of agreement: nods of approval, smiles and words in the right places, demeanor. In communication, it is very important that consent is clearly expressed. If there is agreement, then the perception of the factor of positive attitude towards us is included.
Studying the processes of perception, psychologists have identified typical distortions
ideas about another person.
Halo effect.
Any information received about a person is superimposed on a pre-created image. This pre-existing image acts as a halo that interferes with effective communication. For example, when communicating with a person who is superior to us in some important parameter (height, intelligence, financial situation), he is assessed more positively than if he were equal to us. At the same time, a person is rated higher not only on a parameter that is significant to us, but also on others. In this case, they say that a general personal reassessment occurs. Therefore, if the first impression of the interlocutor is generally favorable, then in the future his actions, behavior and traits are overestimated. At the same time, only positive aspects are noticed and overestimated, while negative ones are not noticed or underestimated. And vice versa, if the general impression of a person is negative, then even his noble actions are not noticed or are interpreted as self-interest.
The halo effect can be beneficial if you create a good reputation among people who are closely related to each other: classmates, work colleagues, friends. Very soon you will find that you are surrounded by wonderful, friendly people who get along wonderfully with each other.
Projection effect
arises when we attribute our advantages to a pleasant person, and our shortcomings to an unpleasant person.
Anticipatory effect
or
the effect of primacy and novelty
appears when we are faced with conflicting information about a person. If we are dealing with a stranger, then importance is attached to the information (information) that is presented at the beginning. When communicating with a well-known person, the latest information about him is taken into account.
Of course, no one can completely avoid mistakes, but everyone can understand the peculiarities of perception and learn to correct their mistakes.
Understanding in the process of communication
“Happiness is when you are understood,” this is what the hero of the movie “We’ll Live Until Monday” wrote in his essay. You already know that in the course of communication a person strives not just to perceive the interlocutor, but to get to know him, to understand the logic of his actions and behavior. People's cognition and understanding of others and themselves occurs in accordance with psychological mechanisms of perception. Let's consider these mechanisms.
Identification (from Latin identificare -
identify) is likening oneself to another. To understand a communication partner, you need to put yourself in his place, since you cannot truly understand a person until you have been in his “skin.” If others misunderstand us, we say: “If only you were in my place,” in other words, we invite others to “turn on” their identification mechanism. This mechanism allows you to understand the values, habits, behavior and norms of another person.
Empathy (from the Greek empatheia -
empathy) is not a rational understanding of another person’s problems, but an emotional response, empathy, empathy. Empathy is based on the ability to correctly imagine what is happening inside a person, what he is experiencing, and how he evaluates events. It has been established that the ability to show empathy increases with the acquisition of life experience. Elderly people, who have seen and experienced a lot, understand a person who finds themselves in certain circumstances better than young people.
The highest form of empathy is effective, characterizing the moral essence of a person. For example, you can simply sympathize with a fellow student who “failed” an exam, or you can help prepare for a retake.
Attraction (from Latin attrahere -
attract, attract) is a form of knowing another person, based on the emergence of positive feelings towards him: from sympathy to love. The reason for the emergence of a positive emotional attitude between communication partners is often their internal and external similarity. For example, young people (boys, girls) understand each other much better than the adults who surround them (parents, teachers, etc.).
To correctly understand a communication partner, it is important to know his attitude towards us, how he perceives and understands us. In this case, the mechanism “works”, which in psychology is called reflection. Reflection (from Latin reflexi
- turning back) is a person’s ability to imagine how he is perceived by a communication partner.
This is no longer just knowledge of the other, but also knowledge of how the other understands us: our mental abilities, individual personality traits and emotional reactions. At the same time, our attention is transferred from the communication partner to ourselves and a kind of doubling of mirror images of each other occurs. As a result, taking into account reflection and mutual reflection of partners, communication is no longer attended by two, but, as it were, six people: “I”, as I really am;
“I” as I see myself; “I” as my communication partner sees me. And these same three positions can be found in the interlocutor.
Understanding another person is very important for successful communication with him. We are often interested in what makes the interlocutor act this way and not otherwise, i.e. what are the reasons for his actions. After all, knowing them, you can predict the further behavior of your communication partner. If a person always had complete information about the people around him with whom he enters into communication, then he could accurately build tactics for interacting with them. But in everyday life, we, as a rule, find ourselves in conditions of information deficiency, not knowing the true reasons for another person’s behavior. This ignorance forces us to attribute to others a wide variety of reasons for their behavior and actions. They are based on the similarity of the interlocutor’s behavior with some known image or an analysis of our own reasons that are found in a similar situation. Attributing reasons for behavior to another person is called causal attribution (from the Latin causa atribuo -
reason and give, endow).
Research shows that every person has habitual explanations for other people's behavior. Some people always find the culprit of what happened and attribute the cause of what happened to a specific person, but not to themselves. For example, if you received a “failure” on an exam, it’s the teacher’s fault because he’s being picky. In this case we talk about personal attribution.
Others tend to see everything in the circumstances rather than look for the culprit, i.e.
they are accustomed to circumstantial attribution.
For example, I was late for class because the transport is bad.
Still others see everything through stimulus attribution,
i.e. the reason lies in the subject. For example: a bag of groceries fell because it didn’t stand well. Or they see the reason in the “victim” himself. For example, if you were expelled from an educational institution, it’s your own fault.
In addition, we are faced with internal and external attribution. For example, we can attribute success in a classmate’s exam to his high mental abilities, diligence, perseverance, perseverance, etc. ( internal attribution),
or we can attribute it to the fact that the ticket was easy, or that during the exam we managed to use a cheat sheet
(external attribution).
When studying causal attribution, psychologists have discovered interesting patterns. Thus, people usually attribute the reason for success to themselves, and failure - to circumstances. The assessment of the event will be different in cases where the person was a participant or an observer. Research has confirmed that attribution errors lead to biases in explaining the behavior of group members. Members of their group always make excuses: “He refused because circumstances forced him.” When explaining the same actions to members of other groups, people say: “He refused because he only thinks about himself.” Positive behavior of members of an “out-group” (not one’s own) group is most often not noticed or is considered as a rare, unique case.
It is noteworthy that knowledge of the patterns and errors of causal attribution helps make it effective for establishing interaction.
Stereotyping (from the Greek stereos typos -
solid and imprint). A stereotype is a stable image of a phenomenon or person that develops in conditions of a lack of information, in other words, a cliche to which we turn. Stereotyping can result from a generalization of personal experience, to which is added information obtained from books and films. So, in cinema and theater there is the concept of “character hero” (“hero-lover”, “villain”, etc.). Many stereotypes are transmitted and developed in accordance with the images embedded in our minds by our parents.
Ethnic stereotypes are the most tenacious, but not always true. For example, stereotypical ideas about the politeness and stiffness of the British, the pedantry of the Germans, the eccentricity of the Italians, and the “mysteriousness of the Slavic soul.” Ethnic stereotypes are most clearly manifested in folklore, in particular in jokes.
Professional stereotypes are popular and persistent. Without working in specific areas, we do not hesitate to talk about the accuracy of a mathematician, the discipline of a military man, and the fact that all businessmen are speculators, and officials are bureaucrats. In other words, every profession has its own stamp.
Stereotypical perception is strengthened by good or bad mood and well-being. So, when you feel unwell, people and events are perceived in a more negative light.
Communication becomes possible if people interacting can assess the level of mutual understanding and understand what the communication partner is like. This, in turn, improves the culture of business relations.
Review questions:
1. What influences the first impression of a person?
2. What factors occur when people perceive each other?
3. What typical distortions in perception do you know?
4. What psychological mechanisms of perception do you know?
5. Reveal the essence of each mechanism.
Bibliography:
1. Stolyarenko L.D. Psychology of business communication and management (textbook for colleges) - Rostov-on-Don.: Phoenix Publishing House, 2009. - 409 p.
2. Volkova A.I. Psychology of communication (textbook for colleges) - Rostov-on-Don.: Phoenix Publishing House, 2006. - 448 p.
3. Shelamova G.M. Business culture and psychology of communication (textbook for secondary vocational education) - M.: Izdatelsky, 2008. - 178 p.
4. Sukhov A.N. Social psychology (textbook for colleges) - M.: Izdatelsky, 2006. - 240 p.
Perceptual side of communication
When studying problems related to the perceptual side of communication, people sometimes talk about social perception.
Social perception should be understood as people’s perception, understanding and assessment of social objects (other people, themselves, groups, other social communities). This is a broader concept than the concept of “interpersonal perception”. In the latter case, the term-concept “social perception” is narrowed and identified with interpersonal perception. In this work, this narrower meaning of the concept of the perceptual side of communication is taken as the basis.
Outstanding Russian psychologists B. G. Ananyev and V. N. Myasishchev, in their works devoted to people’s knowledge of each other, clearly identified three components that every researcher must keep in mind when developing communication problems:
1) people getting to know each other;
2) their emotional relationship to each other;
3) mutual understanding of communication partners.
The development of these theoretical positions on communication problems was continued by their students and followers (A. A. Bodalev, G. M. Andreeva, A. V. Petrovsky, etc.).
Thus, when interacting in joint activities, mutual understanding is important, i.e., the perception of a person by a person and the study of the characteristics of interpersonal perception. The impression that arises when a person is perceived plays an important regulatory role in communication. Based on a person’s perception of a person, an idea of the intentions, thoughts, abilities, emotions, and attitudes of a communication partner is formed. This process in interpersonal perception is carried out from two sides: each of the communication partners likens itself to the other. Consequently, when people interact in joint activities, not only the needs, motives and attitudes of one person, but also all people participating in communication must be taken into account. In addition, the third dimension of “I” (I++) should be taken into account, i.e. how your communication partner sees you.
Decision-making. Task. Convert interests into a final decision
Don't force a ready-made solution. When making your final decision, take into account the interest of your interlocutor. Try not to allow the impression that your interlocutor has given up under your pressure or has moved extremely far from his original positions. Success will be optimal when the interlocutor accepts your proposals because you have gradually convinced him that you are right. RULES FOR CONDUCTING BUSINESS CONVERSATIONS
1. Double interest. Each interlocutor has a dual interest:
a) regarding the substance of the matter discussed in the conversation,
b) regarding your interaction with your partner. In other words, when communicating, people think not only about what is being discussed, but also about how their future relationships will be built and developed. Maintaining good (constructive) relationships is a goal no less important than exchanging information. This is why we often prefer not to discuss certain topics with our loved ones, for fear of ruining our relationship with them.
Psychologists recommend conducting a conversation at each stage in such a way that it contributes to the development of your relationships with subordinates, and does not interfere with them. The problem is that relationships are usually tied to the subject of the conversation, the topic of conversation. That's why:
a) do not make hasty conclusions about the intentions of your interlocutor based on your own fears. In short, don't mistake your own fears for his plans. Your problem is not your partner's fault. Blaming him is the easiest way, even if he is really guilty. Your words, although fair, are usually unproductive. Your attack forces your opponent to become defensive and disagree with what you are communicating;
b) listen carefully and show that you heard what was said. Listening is an active process!
c) talk about your interests, what you want. The interlocutor may not be aware of this, and you may not know what his interests are. If you want your interests to be taken into account, you should explain what they are. In this case, the wording must be specific and clear;
17 pages, 8485 words
Distinctive features of conversation and interview
... for a positive perception of a leader, they include tolerance towards interlocutors and rivals, the ability to look competent, observe moderation ... and keywords that have the greatest impact on the emotional state of the audience. That is why one should carefully study the preferences ... on this topic. I will consider the specifics of interview and conversation methods. I will consider the varieties of these methods and highlight them...
d) look forward, not behind. You will achieve your goal faster if you talk about what you want to achieve, rather than about what happened. Instead of arguing with a person about the past, in which nothing can be changed anyway, d2. Attention to your partner.
. If you appear to your partner as an interested listener, this will make both his and your task much easier. For this:
a) accompany your partner’s speech with remarks like: “Yes!”, “I understand you...”, “That’s interesting...”, “Nice to hear that.” If you do this in a relaxed and constructive manner, accompanying your words with appropriate nonverbal cues, such a reaction will create a subconscious desire to speak freely and naturally. It will help express approval, interest, understanding;
b) show a desire to obtain additional facts and clarify the interlocutor’s position, using the phrases: “Please clarify this...”, “Please repeat, please, again...”, “As I understood you...”, “You can correct me if I I’m wrong...", "In other words, you think that...", etc.;
c) address your partner by name (by first name and patronymic) as often and as casually as possible;
d) do not say offensive words - remember the law of the emotional mirror: the nervousness of one interlocutor causes the nervousness of another, anger generates anger, aggression - aggression.
e) choose your words carefully, pointing out your partner’s mistakes and inaccuracies. Everyone can make mistakes, but a sharp remark like: “This is absolutely wrong!” or: “You are mistaken!” kills thought, hurts the self-esteem of the interlocutor and, therefore, destroys Contact. You can tell a person that he is wrong with a look, a gesture, and a tone, and just as eloquently as with a word. But at the same time it is unacceptable to humiliate his own dignity. By saying: “You are wrong, and I will now prove it to you,” you seem to be saying, “I am smarter than you.” It’s better to say it differently, for example: “I think differently. But, of course, I could be mistaken. I hope you will correct me if I am wrong about something.”
3. Search for commonalities. Any business conversation is, from a psychological point of view, a search for common ground (a common position and a common approach to the issue under discussion).
To make the search for commonality easier, you should:
a) do not start the conversation with issues on which you disagree. It is necessary that the interlocutor from the very beginning of the conversation answers your question affirmatively (said: “Yes!”) or agrees with your thought.
If a negative answer is given, then, from a psychological point of view, the person finds himself in a position that requires him to be true to what was said. It is no coincidence that people intuitively start a conversation with a common topic, for example, exchanging opinions about the weather. As a rule, their opinions coincide.
b) do not rush to say “No!” to your partner’s proposal. It is better to use the “Yes, but...” technique. For example, in response to an unacceptable offer, it is best to say: “Yes, but I want it to be respected ... (here you tactfully express your condition).” This technique forces the interlocutor to look for ways to serve your interests and creates the feeling that your proposed approach is accepted by you.
3 pages, 1375 words
General theory of conflict 2
... communities and societies. Any conflict is a form of expression of this conflict of interests. In a general sense, contradiction is the interaction of oppositely directed tendencies, aspirations and Actions... be represented by three stages: 1) beginning; 2) development; 3) completion. Thus, the general scheme of conflict dynamics consists of the following periods. 1. Pre-conflict situation (latent...
4. Avoid disputes. Everyone knows the statement that truth is born in a dispute. However, it is also not indisputable. Of the two arguing, each tries to win. So: the most reliable way to win an argument is to avoid it. How to do it?
a) during a conversation, never directly and categorically state that your interlocutor is wrong. It is better if you show that you respect his opinion, whatever it may be;
b) if you are wrong (which, of course, is also possible) - quickly and unequivocally admit it.
5. Safe criticism. Criticism of an opponent, his positions, points of view on the issue under discussion is not always an attribute of a business conversation. Remember - this is a very dangerous weapon. Dangerous and double-edged, it hurts both participants in the conversation. Therefore, one should resort to criticism only in extreme cases and only if the following recommendations are observed:
a) in order for your interlocutor to react more calmly to criticism, it is necessary to create a favorable psychological background for its perception. This is your task. The main rule here is that any remark is perceived more easily if it follows approval. It's good to use phrases like:
“I am grateful to you for raising this question with your usual directness.” However…
“Your words show that you are sincerely worried about the outcome of the case.” But still…
— There is a rational grain in your words. But in other way…
b) before criticizing, point out your own mistakes. It will be psychologically easier for your interlocutor to listen to a list of his mistakes if the critic begins by admitting that he himself is not impeccable;
c) it is wiser to admit your shortcomings yourself than to listen to condemnation from the outside. This is a good way to “disarm” your opponent;
d) If you want people to adhere to your point of view, let them know that the idea you are presenting belongs to them.
6. Speech. Professionals say that in a business conversation, it is not so much the arguments that convince, but the form of their presentation. Persuasive speech and convincing arguments are two different things. During a business conversation, try to present the “strongest” arguments in a rapid, confused, stuttering manner, and you will see that they will lose their persuasive power. The tone and pace of speech, logical pauses, etc. are very good tools that help effectively build communicative interaction. In order to master them and create a voice, special classes are required, of course. You can start with the following:
a) change the tone of your voice, because monotony “lulls you to sleep” and distracts your attention. A sudden rise or fall in tone of voice makes a word or phrase stand out from the general background;
b) change the tempo of speech - this gives it expressiveness;
c) pause before and after an important thought;
d) adjust the volume of speech. Lowering the volume at an “important” part of the conversation is the best way to get attention.
11 pages, 5429 words
Business conversation as the main form of business communication
... the most important characteristics of a business conversation, we should begin to consider the main stages of a business conversation. .2 The main stages of a business conversation The main stages of a business conversation are: . Preparing for a business conversation. . The conversation itself with her... took a very long time. It's not bad if you smile when you say your first words. A smile in business relationships creates an atmosphere of goodwill and contributes to the success of any...
7. Trap words. Experience shows that the use of certain words dramatically reduces the effectiveness of the conversation. The best thing you can do is eliminate them from your vocabulary. What kind of words are these?
a) parasitic words: so to speak, here, well, that means, as they say, actually, in general, in short...
b) offensive words;
c) the words “on occasion”. Statements like:
—I am not an expert (even if you really are not an expert).
—I am, of course, not a speaker (only a professional speaker can afford such words, and only in strictly defined cases).
When you say this, your interlocutor may wonder whether they should listen to you further.
In addition, statements like:
- Let's quickly discuss with you...
- I just happened to be passing by and dropped in to see you - If you say that, then you show how unimportant the conversation and discussion of the problem is for you, not to mention your interlocutor.
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