Features of psychological observation - advantages and disadvantages

Psychological observation: definition of the concept

Observation in psychology is one of the main methods of knowing the characteristics of an object empirically. The method requires a mandatory transition from describing facts to explaining their essence, forming a psychological characteristic of what is being observed.

The results of applying the scientific method can be influenced by the following factors:

• level of knowledge in the area under study;
• professional experience, qualifications of the observer;
• personal experience, emotional and mental stereotypes, value orientations of the psychologist.

Observation presupposes the non-interference of the subject in the process or situation under study.

The method makes it possible to get a complete picture of what is happening and reflect it through records and tables. A special feature of the procedure is the complexity, and often the impossibility, of accurately repeating the observation situation.

The essence of the method

Observation in psychological science, unlike everyday observation, is based on a specific plan, a program thought out in advance, and requires recording facts, their analysis and interpretation.

Only external (speech, motor) manifestations are available for tracking. For example, it is impossible to observe:

• intelligence, but the researcher can monitor the process of solving problems;
• sociability, but you can see the fact of communication with other people.

Observed situations, phenomena, and behavior of objects are necessarily recorded in protocols and diaries. The observed characteristics are presented as descriptively as possible, without explanation. The form of the protocol reflects the subject, task, hypothesis and main criteria of the study.

The reliability of observation results increases if the researcher has the opportunity to use the method for a long time, to observe objects in different situations and roles. The reliability of the study also increases if several observers monitor the situation.

Qualitative observation is only possible if there are no role relationships between object and subject. For example, a schoolchild behaves differently in the presence of parents, teachers and friends. Therefore, the characteristics that different people give it differ.

Psychological observation does not allow the subject to intervene in the situation being studied. The observation results are necessarily supported by data from other research methods.

Purpose, subject, object of observation

As mentioned above, observation always begins with setting its goal. This is due to the peculiarities of perception, which is the main mechanism of observation. Such patterns of perception as the separation of a figure from the background, selectivity, unity of part and whole, ensure the objectivity and integrity of the reflection of some objects

and exclusion from the perception of others. Therefore, you can look and not see. The purpose of observation becomes a means of controlling perception, ensuring selectivity, seeing some objects and placing others in the background. The need for a goal arises due to the fact that observation occurs in the natural conditions of human life, where the flow of life activity naturally includes a variety of mental characteristics in their unity. The goal helps to select from the natural living space and time what needs to be seen.

In psychological observations, the most typical goals are:

• study of the substantive characteristics of certain mental phenomena (determination of properties, signs inherent in the phenomenon);

• study of people as carriers of certain known mental characteristics and comparison of the results of observation of these specific individuals with known characteristics;

• studying the reasons underlying certain problems among different groups of people, in different conditions of activity and communication;

— study of the characteristics of behavior, activity and communication of people with different mental characteristics.

For example, when observing a child’s play, various goals can be set: to study initiative - the lack of initiative, or the emotions manifested in the game, or those objective and social actions that the child uses, or the characteristics of relationships with other children, etc. After determining goal, the observer is faced with the question: what needs to be recorded, what to look at when studying the phenomenon of interest.

When answering this question, it is necessary, firstly, to understand what mental phenomenon is the subject of observation. This knowledge should include not only the concept of a given phenomenon, but also a description of the diversity of its manifestations, properties, patterns of occurrence, forms of existence (phenomenological studies may be an exception).

For example, the purpose of observation may be to establish the speech characteristics of younger adolescents. The subject of observation is the speech of younger teenagers. This means that the observer needs to know not only the psychological characteristics of speech, but also its already known features in children of this age. Observation will help to identify the characteristics inherent in the observed group of adolescents (living in different historical times, in different social conditions, studying in different types of schools or in the same school, but according to different programs, etc.).

Based on the PURPOSE of observation, select the OBJECT, SUBJECT and situation of observation (what to observe?). Then think carefully about the PLAN, CATEGORY SYSTEM, observation protocols, etc. Choose a METHOD of observation that has the least impact on the research object and most ensures the collection of the necessary information (how to observe?).

After this, select the METHOD FOR REGISTRATION of the observed (how to record?)

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF OBSERVATION

Before conducting a study using the observation method, it is advisable to conduct a TRAINING observation in order to reveal the upcoming difficulties and acquire basic observation skills.

Difficulties in observation may arise (this is usually the case when studying complex phenomena and when the phenomenon occurs at a fast pace and constantly changing situations). After conducting the main observations, the data obtained are processed and interpreted (what is the result?) (Diagram 13).

Observation units
are
simple and complex actions of an object. (i.e. what is being tracked)

Units of observation are recorded and recorded in the following documents:

1.
Observation card
-
intended for recording primary signs of observation in a strictly formalized and encoded form)
2.
Observation protocol
-
for combining the registration of observation results, formalized and informal procedures for several objects of observation. Recording observations
allows you to return to observed facts. The protocol is the basis and starting point for further analysis:

— records must be sufficiently detailed to allow objective analysis;

- take notes at the observation site or immediately after the study. After observation, review the records, correct them and supplement them;

The form of keeping the protocol is determined:

— subject, task and purity of the research;

— the presence of a prepared continuum, conventional signs for recording facts;

— availability of technical means (video, etc.);

— repeatability of a certain kind of observed facts;

- write down only the facts, and not their interpretation;

- perceive each response and action not in isolation, but in connection with other actions, words, and accompanying phenomena;

— all records must be processed immediately. Do not accumulate a large amount of observational material, since processing requires more time than the observation itself.

3. Observation diary
–
to record the results of observation; it describes not only the actions of the subject, but also the actions of the researcher.

A number of rules for applying surveillance:

1. Conduct repeated systematic observations of this behavior in repeating and changing situations, which makes it possible to separate random coincidences from stable regular relationships.

2. Do not make hasty conclusions; be sure to put forward and test alternative assumptions regarding what mental reality is behind the observed behavior.

3. Compare the particular conditions for the appearance of the observed behavior with the general situation. Consideration in the general context of large communities (the general situation, the personality as a whole, in relation to the child - the stage of mental development, etc.) often changes the psychological meaning of what is observed.

Another feature of psychological observation is that the presence of the observer

can significantly change the observed behavior, since both the person and the animal are not indifferent to the fact that they are being observed. To minimize this influence, it is necessary to make sure that the observer can see while remaining invisible. There are several ways to do this: a) “get familiar”, that is, often be present in the environment surrounding the observed, being deep in one’s work and, as if not paying attention to the observed; b) explain the presence of the observer for some purpose acceptable to the observed, for example, explain to the school teacher his presence in the lesson with the desire to master the methodology of teaching his subject; c) replace the observer with recording equipment (cinema camera, video recorder, television transmitter), which, firstly, confuses the observed somewhat less and, secondly, ensures accurate recording; d) conduct observation from a dark room, separated from the room where the observed are located, by glass with one-way light conductivity - Gesell glass and e) photographing and filming with a hidden camera. The last three methods are not always available, and the last two, moreover and mainly, pose a difficult ethical problem, since they encroach on a person’s inner world without his permission. Therefore, we can agree with P. Fress, who believes that since the observer is most often openly present and thereby introduces new conditions into the observed process itself, only his modesty, tact, and ability to be as close as possible to the observed weaken the inevitable influence of his presence.

System of categories and rating scales

contains a complete description of all possible behaviors. Serves as an important means of clarifying and facilitating observation. She performs the role:

a) auxiliary means for more accurate analytical observation;

b) allows scientific processing of observed facts;

c) draw appropriate conclusions.

Types of categorical systems are shown in Diagram 14.

Scheme 14.

I a. Complete categorical system.

Any manifestation of behavior is included in the list of categories, for example, the study of the student’s attitude to the team (Zaluzhny A.S. Children's group and methods of studying it. M., 1931)

II a. Continuum categorical system.

Qualitative indicators are arranged in a continuous series (for example, “the child is ATTENTIVE ↔ INATENTIVE”).

Classification can be according to the following continuous system:

IIb. Discontinuous categorical system.

It does not represent a continuum of a continuous series, for example, when solving mathematical problems, the system of categories is built so that one can follow the process of solving them (problems).

IIIa. Single change categorical system

reality under study (for example, the activity of a child).

IIIb. Categorical system of several parameters of the subject being studied

(for example, the activities of not only the child, but also the group as a whole, and the teacher as well).

IV. Categories by nature of requirements

to the level of scientific observation.

IVa.

The phenomenon is recorded as the observer sees it (for example, whether the child raises his hand or not).

IV6.

The researcher must know the essence of the question under study, its logic. He must be prepared to observe as a high level of intellectual effort is required.

Introspection

- a person’s observation of the internal plane of his own mental life, followed by recording its manifestations (i.e. recording experiences, thoughts, feelings, etc.). In modern psychology, self-observation data is not taken on faith, but is taken into account as facts requiring scientific interpretation. The results of self-observation can be recorded in various documents - letters, autobiographies, questionnaires, etc.

Self-observation should not be confused with introspection as a subjective method. Introspection

characterized by the fact that the observed phenomena and processes must be completed, and only then the events are restored from memory;
That is why there are no distortions caused by the process of introspection as such. Introspection
, on the contrary, is an attempt to “peek” at the events of mental life along the way, as a result of which the observed psychological phenomena are hopelessly distorted. Therefore, introspection, unlike introspection, does not have any scientific value.

The result of introspection is, in some cases, self-report—a person’s description of himself in the relative integrity of mental and personal manifestations. Self-report may be characterized by systematic errors, the most important of which is that a significant part of the subjects are inclined, when giving it, to present themselves in the most favorable light possible.

Object and surveillance equipment

The objects of observation are individual people or many participants at once. They may belong to the same or different social groups. The subject of observation is the behavior of those being watched:

• verbal manifestations - content of conversations, intensity, duration of speech, expressiveness, vocabulary, grammatical structures;
• non-verbal manifestations - facial expression, direction of gaze, eye movements, facial expressions, gestures;
• movement - maintaining or not maintaining a distance, speed of movement or state of immobility;
• physical influence on others - blows, pushes, touches, joint efforts.

Only that which can be registered becomes the object of observation. While tracking an object, the researcher does not observe his own mental reality, but records those facts that he sees and can record. The psyche is manifested in behavior - this postulate allows the researcher to make assumptions about the mental properties of an object. The basis for the hypothesis is observational data.

The means of observation can be either the researcher himself or the auxiliary elements chosen by him:

• sound recording equipment;
• video and photo camera;
• special observation maps.

The choice of equipment for recording the situation is determined by the conditions in which it is carried out - in an isolated room, in a public place.

Methodological recommendations “Methodology for organizing observations”

Observation is a purposeful, organized perception and recording of the behavior of the object under study. The observer’s task, as a rule, is not associated with interfering in “life” by creating special conditions for the manifestation of the observed process or phenomenon.

Observation differs from passive contemplation of the surrounding reality in that it: a) is subordinated to a specific goal; b) carried out according to a specific plan; c) equipped with objective means to carry out the process and record the results.

In the process of observation, common and distinctive features are identified, patterns are established, and conclusions are drawn based on this. Observation is characterized by the fact that when it is applied, various types of schoolchildren’s activities are included in the process of assimilation. This is the development of a plan for familiarization with objects, comprehension of the task, practical work on its implementation, presentation of the results, summing up the work performed. This knowledge lays the foundation for students’ worldviews on the unity of the surrounding world; on their basis, they develop the belief that the surrounding world is knowable. Observing objects and phenomena in nature itself, students examine them with all their senses and become convinced that they really exist, that they change.

During observations, students begin to form a holistic view of the natural environment:

• the world around us really exists and is cognizable by man;
• objects and natural phenomena are interconnected, nature is a single whole;
• The world around us is not static, it is constantly changing.

Criteria for assessing the development of intellectual skills:

• the ability to highlight the main, essential;
• the ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships between the components of nature, humans and the environment;
• the ability to compare, generalize, and draw conclusions.

Observations contribute to the accumulation of a stock of reliable concrete-figurative ideas about the surrounding reality, factual knowledge, which is the material for its subsequent awareness, generalization, bringing into a system, revealing the causes and relationships that exist in nature. During observations, students gain special practical skills.

Observations are closely related to verbal and visual teaching methods and are used when new knowledge needs to be acquired in the process of active practical and mental activity, which allows not only to acquire new knowledge, but also to develop practical skills.

Basic requirements for observations

:

• the content of observations must be systematized;
• all observations must be accessible;
• observations should become more complex over the years of study, deepen, without losing the nature of integrity;
• objects for observation are selected by the teacher together with the students, depending on the degree of physical accessibility of the natural object.

The following types of observations are distinguished:

In terms of didactic orientation:

• observations prior to learning new material;
• observations taking place in the process of studying new material;
• observations that complete the process of learning new material.

According to the technical “equipment” of perception:

• qualitative observations;
• quantitative observations.

According to the method of organizing cognitive activity in the process of observation:

• self-observation;
• collective observations;
• conclusions and messages.

By duration:

• short-term observations;
• long-term observations;
• phenological observations.

Classification of observations according to A.I. Ivanova:

1. By the nature of the observed objects:

• Plant observations;
• Animal observations;
• Observations of inanimate objects.

1. At the location of observations:

• In the group room;
• Location on;
• In the forest, in the field, etc.

1. By number of children:

• Individual (1-4 children);
• Group (5-10 children);
• Collective (the whole group).

1. Due to their implementation:

• Random;
• Planned;
• Put in response to a child's question.

1. By the nature of inclusion in the pedagogical process:

• Episodic (carried out from time to time);
• Systematic.

1. By duration:

• Short-term (from 5 to 15 minutes);
• Long (over 15 minutes).

1. By the number of observations of the same object:

• One-time;
• Repeated or cyclic.

1. By place in the loop:

• Primary;
• Repeated;
• Final and final.

1. By the nature of mental operations:

• Ascertaining (allowing one to see one state of an object or one phenomenon without connection with other objects and phenomena);
• Comparative (allowing you to see the dynamics of a process or note changes in the state of an object);
• Generalizing (observations in which the general patterns of a process previously studied at individual stages are traced).

10.According to the nature of children’s cognitive activity:

• Illustrative (children know everything, and observation only confirms familiar facts);
• Search (children do not know in advance what the result will be);
• Solving observation problems.

11. According to the method of application in the classroom:

• Demonstration;
• Frontal.

An observation methodology is understood as a socially fixed, clearly stated for others, objectively presented system for collecting and processing empirical data, which is adequate to a clearly defined range of tasks. In foreign literature, a synonym for “observation technique” is “observation technique”.

Observation technique

contains the most complete description of the observation procedure and includes:

a) choosing a situation and object for observation;

b) an observation program (scheme) in the form of a list of signs of the observed, behavior and units of observation with a detailed description of them;

c) the method and form of recording the observation results;

d) description of the requirements for the observer’s work;

e) description of the method of processing and presenting the obtained data.

Organization of observations

:

1. The observed object must be accessible to perception by every student participating in the observation. In each specific case, the teacher considers how many children can simultaneously participate in the work and how they should stand or sit in order to be able to receive the necessary sensory information about the object.

2. The teacher’s verbal information should not replace the direct perception of the object. The teacher must verbally designate everything that the children see, but the word must follow the perception: only in this case is full-fledged knowledge formed.

3. The perception of any objects should be short-lived (depending on the age of the child), since observation is a mental activity that requires concentrated attention, volitional effort, and mental effort. During observations, children should not talk, play, or manipulate objects.

Observation process

can be conditionally divided into three stages, each of which serves to achieve the general goal of observations (according to A.V. Vasilyeva):

Stage I – preparatory.

Its purpose is to arouse children’s interest in the object of observation. This is achieved in several ways:

• a short conversation that focuses on something new;
• addressing children's personal experiences;
• showing a film and illustrations that prepare students to perceive the object.

At this stage, the teacher indicates the goal, objectives and gives assignments for the upcoming observation.

Stage II. It is necessary to direct and focus voluntary attention on the observed object. For example, the use of surprise. You can use techniques that would cause volitional efforts, mental stress and would help maintain voluntary attention for a certain time. You can use an artistic image, a riddle, a saying, a poem, showing and explaining illustrations, questions and directions. All these techniques are aimed primarily at setting a certain mental task for the child. The search for a solution to this problem organizes, directs and keeps the child’s attention on the observation object.

Stage III is the main one. It is the longest in time. As a result of examining the object, the child should form an accurate and clear idea of ​​it. The purpose of this observation is also to show children the techniques of correct sequential examination and help them learn them. This stage (in terms of its content and the role of observation) can be divided into three parts.

The first part is an examination of the object or phenomenon as a whole. As a rule, children turn to examining individual parts and parts of an object. Taking into account this feature of perception, it is advisable to choose a characteristic for the object that would immediately direct the children’s attention to a holistic perception of the object. Children can silently contemplate an object for several seconds. Silent perception should not be spontaneous, purposeful - this is what the teacher’s guiding word (question, instruction) makes it so. The second part is the analysis of the subject being examined. The teacher directs the child’s attention to the features of the subject. The child must isolate the parts and properties of an object, understand that they are its characteristics, and on this basis form an idea of ​​the object as a whole. By identifying essential features, the child learns to determine whether an object belongs to a particular group based on its characteristic features, and learns to distinguish it from other similar objects. The teacher directs the children's attention to highlighting those properties of the object that he had in common with a whole group of homogeneous objects. Through the perception of one object, children learn the properties inherent in all objects of this kind, as a result of which they form a generalized idea of ​​the typical structure, color, shape and other characteristics of the object. The third part is an interpretive examination, revealing only those perceptible properties, but also, on their basis, the abstract properties of objects and phenomena in their essential relationships. The purpose of this part of observation is to assign a given object to a certain group of homogeneous objects, as well as to establish causal connections and relationships between observed objects and phenomena, their parts and properties. For this purpose, the teacher involves and uses in the observation of children their personal sensory experience that they have previously acquired (independently or under the guidance of the teacher).

Stage IY is the final stage.

Its purpose is to summarize and consolidate the acquired ideas and knowledge about objects and phenomena, as well as to evaluate the methods of examining objects that children used.

Observation stages

:

1) Consideration of the object as a whole (to form a holistic view of the object).

2) Work on examining parts of the object.

3) Generalization of what was seen. Techniques for consolidating observations

:

1) Look at the object, then close your eyes and mentally imagine it.

2) Imitation.

3) Comparison.

4) Working with illustrations.

5) Independent observation.

Observation as an activity for children is very difficult. They are required not only to have developed technical skills, but also to understand the meaning of the operations performed. In fact, any method of recording the results of observations is their encoding into a certain conditional system, and working with the received materials is their decoding.

As numerous studies by psychologists and physiologists show, the ability to operate with codes reaches some significant level in adolescence. At preschool age there are only the rudiments of this ability. Therefore, the teacher must work in this area very carefully. The slightest pressure, a slight acceleration of this operation will lead to the fact that children will no longer understand its meaning, and thus the entire experiment will lose its meaning.

When teaching children to register observed phenomena, you should start with the simplest forms - using ready-made photographs and pictures. At first, the teacher does the main work; the children only monitor his actions and perform individual operations at his request. So that they do not remain outside observers, the teacher constantly turns to them for advice, asks them to clarify what they saw, deliberately makes mistakes, allowing students to show their powers of observation. Gradually, the role of students increases, and the role of the teacher decreases.

There are ways to record observations, which can be divided into several types:

• mental
• graphic: use of ready-made forms, pictorial, written
• practical: fixation of natural objects, modeling.

Mental ways of recording observations

.

Mental are various ways of fixing what is seen in children’s memory. This includes those techniques of mental operations that facilitate memorization, increase the duration of storage of received information and speed up its retrieval from memory.

• the child examines the object and composes an oral story about it;

• carefully examines the object, turns away and, without looking, gives its description. After this, the teacher again offers to examine the object and independently make corrections and clarifications;
• To train visual memory, the teacher invites children to carefully examine an object, then close their eyes and try to imagine it in all its details. The teacher helps this process with his laconic but vivid description, which mentions some of the most important details. Preference is given to those that will be needed later when discussing the results of an observation or experiment.
• A stronger fixation of an image in children’s memory is facilitated by comparing it with objects already known to children;
• classification technique is the ability of children to find similarities between objects, therefore it is widely used only in older preschool age. The classification operation is based on the main key features; the remaining characteristics common to the entire group are transferred to the new object automatically. This makes the thought process more economical. When introducing a new object, the teacher does not give a detailed description of it, but suggests thinking about which group of objects it can be attributed to. A lesson using the classification technique will be much more effective than when communicating knowledge in ready-made form.
• The economization of thought processes is facilitated by the use of the method of enlargement of didactic units. Simultaneous study of two reciprocal processes leads to savings of up to 20% of teaching time. Children's minds are enriched by an algorithm for accelerated retrieval and memorization. In fact, they have to remember not two concepts, but one. The real, naturally occurring process is not artificially split into parts; as a result, children immediately develop true knowledge. An important fact is that the method of enlarging didactic units allows you to see the dynamics of the process (birds fly away in the fall and arrive in the spring). It is important to see such reciprocal processes in nature and be able to convey what they saw to children;
• The inclusion of observational materials in role-playing games of the type: “Find out by description”, “What has changed”, etc. can be of great benefit.
• if information about what they saw is needed in 2-3 months, the teacher brings the children back to these memories about once a week under various external pretexts. To do this, you do not need to conduct special classes, an ordinary everyday conversation is enough;

Using ready-made forms

. This method does not involve children working independently, but recognizing an object with the help of visual materials demonstrated by the teacher, in other words, choosing one correct option from several proposed ones. Ready-made forms can be:

• -Pictures
• -photos
• - schematic sketches made by the teacher
• - three-dimensional image of an object or toy
• - individual letters and words
• -natural objects
• -sound recordings

Using ready-made forms is the easiest way to register observed objects. Introducing the children to them, the teacher shows 2-3 photographs and asks them to determine which of them depicts the same event that we are now observing. If you plan to return to what you saw in the future, the selected photo is pasted into the album. When studying the dynamics of the process, similar work is carried out at each new stage. The photographs are marked with numbers and subsequently posted by the children in the same sequence in which the learning process developed. Detailed similarity between the real process and the image in the photograph should not be achieved; the similarity of real and depicted objects in key characteristics is sufficient.

Visual ways of recording observations

. Sketching an object is the most common, but not the easiest way to graphically record what you see. It requires fairly developed image skills, as well as the ability to see nature.

Depending on the level of preparedness of the group, sketches are made by the teacher, individual children or all children. Schematic sketching involves reflecting in the drawing not all, but only the most important details that are best visible, most important, or change the most during the experiment. The use of symbols allows you to create a drawing that contains information in encoded form. A good example of this is the sign system recommended for recording weather events. When using this registration method, it is important to choose the correct symbols. They must be associated with the observed objects. Then children will easily remember them and will skillfully operate with them when deciphering drawings.

If the signs have nothing to do with objects and are not associated with them in any way, this overloads children's memory and complicates the process of deciphering records. It is best to come up with symbols in each specific case together with the children. Considering the characteristics of children's memory, you should not use many symbols at the same time. Their number, with rare exceptions, should not exceed three.

Outlining objects is used in cases where it is important to maintain the exact dimensions or relative position of parts.

Forecast drawings are useful for forming in children real ideas about the duration and sequence of certain processes, as well as familiarizing themselves with the dynamics of some transformations. When starting to observe, the teacher invites students to express in a drawing their ideas about what the object will look like after a certain time, for example: “Today we sowed seeds. Draw what the young plants will look like in a week.” After the scheduled period, the teacher distributes their drawings to the children and invites them to compare their ideas with the events that actually took place. With the systematic use of this form, students begin to relate their actions to reality, and their forecast drawings become more and more meaningful.

Written methods of recording observations

. Teacher's note. The specificity of the work is that the teacher constantly consults with the children, recites the written text out loud, and asks for clarification of certain details. Sometimes the teacher deliberately makes mistakes, thereby giving the children the opportunity to look more closely at the object, correct the mistake and, therefore, better remember what they saw.

Recording a child's story. In this case, the teacher writes down a story that one child or group of children writes. Sometimes the teacher deliberately introduces errors into the text in order to train the children’s attention. Then, after final adjustments, the text is saved until the time it is needed. Usually it is used when it is necessary to compare the results of two different observations carried out under different conditions. Recording observations by children. The children's entry should consist of 1-2 words that are key, reflecting the essence of the observation, or even the initial letters of these words. Thus, the formation of skills for recording observation results is carried out in the following stages:

• use of ready-made forms
• observation of students at teacher's work
• attracting individual students who are good at performing the required operations
• filling out collective calendars and diaries by all children in turn
• collective filling of individual calendars under the guidance of a teacher
• independent filling of individual calendars with subsequent verification of observation results

These stages are observed not only when children move from one age group to another, but also if the teacher has accepted a new group or a new child who does not have the appropriate skills. A short walk through the entire path is necessary not only to teach them to record results, but also to teach them to see nature, which is much more difficult.

Observation recording value

. Observed phenomena are recorded so that they are better imprinted in the children’s memory and can be reproduced at the right time. During observation, visual memory functions mainly. When recording observed phenomena, other types of memory are also involved - motor, auditory, olfactory, tactile. When recording what you see, you need to analyze the phenomenon, highlight the main thing in order to reflect it in your diaries. This involves the participation of not only projection, but also associative areas of the brain, which stimulates the development of basic mental operations. The same purpose is served by discussing what was seen during the recording process. It contributes to the development of external and internal speech, clarification and concretization of the observed phenomenon.

The procedure for recording observations is a difficult task for children. Not to mention the low level of development of labor and visual skills, children often do not understand the meaning of the operations performed and cannot always correlate the image with the real events that they observed. However, the comments made should not lead to abandonment of this form of work; on the contrary, children should be gradually accustomed to recording what they see, and then the experiment becomes complete.

When recording observations, the teacher widely uses an individual approach to children. When giving appropriate instructions, he takes into account many factors: the child’s desire to engage in this type of activity, his well-being, the ability to perform the necessary operations, the ability to subsequently decipher what was sketched, and much more. This work, unlike other types of work (for example, hygiene and maintenance), is purely voluntary. The teacher does not have the right to force the child to experiment and record the results. The teacher’s task is immeasurably more difficult: he must make the child want to do it himself.

Maintaining documentation during observations.

To record observations, there are three types of documents: a weather calendar, a nature calendar, and a protocol (diary) of observations.

Weather calendar

is a sheet of paper, lined up by day; In each column, using conventional signs, information about the weather is entered, i.e., about the state of the sky, wind, precipitation and temperature. If you plan to involve the whole group in the work, take a large sheet of paper for the calendar. If the work is carried out individually or in groups of 2-3 people, you can limit yourself to a landscape sheet. The frequency of entering data into the weather calendar is determined by the goals and objectives that the teacher outlines for a given period of time. In the absence of special tasks, it is fashionable to fill the calendar for one week per month. In this case, 2-3 calendars are accumulated during the season, and on their basis a final lesson is conducted to summarize information about seasonal changes in nature. It is irrational to fill out a calendar every day for several months, since monotonous work tires children, and the large volume of material received makes it difficult to analyze. However, if children continue to show interest in this type of activity, it makes sense to continue recording weather conditions. Observations of the weather can be continued as long as children remain interested in this type of activity. The external design of the calendar is not subject to standardization and is entirely determined by the goals of learning, the tastes of the teacher and the available capabilities.

Nature calendar

can be called a complicated version of the weather calendar. It also reflects information about the weather, but, in addition, it contains photographs, reproductions, drawings by children and any necessary reference materials characterizing the features of the season, and sometimes even each of its months. The latter is especially important in spring and autumn, when the differences between months are more pronounced than in winter and summer. The nature calendar can be permanent, but can be replenished with materials as needed. Sometimes they create interchangeable sections, such as “This happened today”, “Nature news”, “Who (or what) we saw on a walk”, etc. The external design of the calendar is entirely determined by the teacher himself and is not subject to any formalization. Seasonal calendars are kept throughout the year and used in general lessons.

Protocol (diary) of observations

serves to register single phenomena, as well as the dynamics of changes in an object. In the latter case, this may be not only seasonal, but also any other changes. In particular, the protocol records the results of experiments conducted with plants, animals and inanimate objects. There are no special requirements for the observation diary (except for the usual ones - accuracy and accuracy of reproduction of details). The form and size of the protocol, the method of recording observations are determined by the teacher, and even better, accepted by the children after a collective discussion. When recording the dynamics of a process, it is necessary to record the results at several stages. A variety of data recording techniques available for school-age children.

General principles for keeping observation records

: firstly, it is necessary to construct records in such a way that each observation protocol is provided with the following information: 1) date of observation (indicating the year) 2) start time and end time of observation 3) place of observation 4) observation conditions (temperature, and if the animal is outside, then there is wind, cloudiness, precipitation; the presence and number of people near the enclosure, the presence of other animals) 5) the general condition of the animal at the beginning of observation - normal, inactive, agitated, sick, etc. 6) sufficiently detailed data about the animal objects of observation (species, gender, name and/or number) 7) surname and signature of the person who carried out the observations. If observations are carried out on separate sheets, then all information should be on each sheet; if the entry is made in a journal, then the data common to all observations, as well as the abbreviations used, can be placed on the title page. Secondly, the records must reflect objective changes in the external state of the animal, while the same external manifestations must be equally reflected in the records in all cases. Thirdly, the entries must be made accurately enough so that they can be easily read; all symbols (icons, letters) must be deciphered. Fourthly, observing behavior means noting changes in the external state of the animal.

Correctly planned and appropriately organized observations develop the cognitive activity of schoolchildren and their interest in the world around them.

Psychological observation: applied classification

In psychology, the observation method is used in cases where the researcher needs to obtain information about the behavior of a specific person or group of people in the most natural conditions for them, without interfering in the situation. The observation itself should not in any way affect the natural development of events.

There are several types of psychological observation:

• laboratory;
• field (in natural life conditions);
• explicit;
• hidden;
• indirect;
• indirect;
• included (open or closed type);
• not included;
• direct;
• indirect;
• solid;
• selective.

During continuous tracking, the researcher records all the nuances and signs of the object’s mental activity over a certain period of time. In selective research, only those manifestations that directly or indirectly relate to the topic being studied are taken into account.

The classification also includes the concept of systematic and non-systematic observation. In the first case, the research is carried out in accordance with a clearly defined plan. The observer records behavioral characteristics, registers and classifies external conditions.

With non-systematic observation, the researcher’s focus is on a generalized picture of the behavior of a subject or group of people in certain external conditions. At the same time, the goal is not to record the causes of behavioral manifestations, analyze their relationship and strictly describe the phenomena.

Field observations are carried out in natural conditions for an object or group. The main requirement is the researcher's non-interference in the situation. Observation in natural conditions makes it possible to study the behavior of an object without significant distortions. But the problem with conducting such research is that it is labor intensive, and also that the researcher cannot control the situation. Field surveillance is often unsystematic and is carried out using a wait-and-see approach.

Laboratory tracking is more convenient for the researcher, but the artificial environment may not have the best effect on the results of the study.

According to the duration of the study, they are distinguished:

• longitudinal - carried out over a long time (several years, decades), involves constant contact between the researcher and the object of study. The result of the observation is recorded in diaries, representing as widely as possible the behavior, lifestyle, habits and other manifestations on the part of the object;
• Periodic is the most common type of chronological tracking structure. It is carried out over several short periods of time.

Single, one-time observations - they are presented as a description of individual cases. Research is unique in nature, but can also be represented by already known manifestations of a psychological process or phenomenon.

Based on the forms of research, a distinction is made between conscious and unconscious, internal and external observations.

Unconscious internal psychological observation

This type of surveillance is characterized by the fact that the target is unaware that he is being monitored. The researcher himself becomes part of the situation. For example, psychologists often infiltrate a specific company in order to study in as much detail as possible the behavioral characteristics of its participants. During the study, the observer comes into close contact with the object or their group, but the subjects are not aware of the purpose of the interaction.

The method of unconscious internal observation is often used to study the characteristics of small social groups. The psychologist's natural behavior contributes to successful research. If this condition is met, work in a group does not affect the course of the study and the behavior of its participants.

Ethical issues can complicate the job. During tracking, difficulties may arise with audio and video recording, especially considering that the recording of the results must occur in secret from the participants.

The observation itself does not influence the subject's behavior as prescribed by the protocol. He receives the maximum amount of useful information if he can establish direct contact with the subjects being studied. But another problem may be that the psychologist begins to share the moral values ​​of the subjects being studied, and the specialist experiences a moral conflict.

Conscious internal psychological observation

Conscious internal observation is characterized by the fact that the subject knows that he is being watched. The researcher comes into contact with the observed, even before starting work, introduces him to the task at hand, and talks about his status.

Sometimes the subject is given incorrect information. This is done to make it possible to record the characteristics of behavior in a specific situation. Such actions by researchers contradict the requirements of the ethical code and threaten serious punishment, and the experiment often has an unfavorable outcome. The situation itself creates stress for the observed, and its consequences can negatively affect his future life.

External type

The main condition for carrying out external unconscious observation is that the observed person does not know that he is being tracked. The psychologist does not come into contact with the object or the group being studied, but only records the information received, being in a detached position.

Thus, doctors in psychiatric clinics monitor patients through a small window. From the doctor's side it is transparent, but the patient sees a mirror instead of a window. This feature of the tracking organization makes it possible to observe the actions of objects without constraining or embarrassing them.

During external observation, it is possible to collect maximum objective information about the object, its behavior or mental manifestations. The advantage of such observation is that a tired researcher can be replaced by another, and it also becomes possible for several specialists to take part in the experiment at once.

In external research, the situation unfolds naturally, without pressure from the outside; the specialist has the opportunity to use technical means to record facts.

Classification of observations

Experts distinguish two types of observations depending on the extent to which the researcher is involved in the environment being studied.

The first type includes participant observation, when the observer takes personal part, and other participants accept him as a participant in the event.

The second type includes third-party observation, in which the observer acts as if “from the outside,” without direct participation.

Participant observation has two options:

1. the observed know that their behavior is being recorded by the observer, for example, the behavior of a group of climbers or a submarine crew;
2. the observed do not know that their behavior is being recorded by the observer, for example, prisoners in a common cell.

Basically, when a person notices that he is being watched, his behavior changes dramatically.

Based on the nature of interaction with the object, there is covert and open observation.

With covert surveillance, a person does not know that he is the object of surveillance. In this case, Gesell's mirror is used, a hidden camera is used, or the psychologist disguises himself as an ordinary participant in the events.

Overt observation indicates that a person is aware of the observation.

Depending on the object, introspection is distinguished, i.e. self-observation, however, the results of this observation in modern psychology are not taken for granted, but external observation of the behavior of other people is also taken into account as facts.

Observations are also distinguished regarding the time of the study - they can be one-time, periodic, longitudinal, i.e. carried out over a long period of time.

Based on the nature of perception, observations can be continuous or selective. With continuous observation, the researcher equally pays attention to all objects available to him.

With selective observation, only certain parameters of behavior or types of behavioral reactions are selected.

Observations are also divided according to the nature of data recording; there is ascertaining observation, the task of which is to record the presence and characteristics of significant forms of behavior, and evaluative observation, when the researcher compares facts according to the degree of their expression, using a rating scale.

The results of observation can be recorded during the observation process or after some time, however, then the observer’s memory will be of great importance, and the reliability of the results obtained will not be entirely reliable.

According to the degree of standardization of procedures, free or exploratory observation is distinguished, in which, if necessary, it is possible to change the rules and the subject of the study.

This observation, despite its specific purpose, is devoid of clear restrictions in the choice of what needs to be paid attention to and what points need to be recorded.

Such observation is used in the early stages of scientific work. In addition to this, there is also structured observation, as well as unsystematic and systematic observation.

Figure 1. Observation method. Author24 - online exchange of student work

Psychological observation: advantages and disadvantages

The advantages and disadvantages of a research method such as observation should be assessed in advance, at the planning stage.

The positive aspects of observation include the opportunity to:

• identify the smallest details of the issue under study, reveal its versatility;
• see and record events and behavioral manifestations directly during their occurrence;
• maintain contact between the observer and the subject, which allows you to obtain the most reliable, objective and relevant information of a social nature;
• fully understand the motives and meaning of certain behavioral manifestations in different situations, identify their impact on current events;
• maintain the researcher’s independence from the observed object, when collecting information, rely not only on the ability, but also the desire to establish contact.

Observation is a relatively inexpensive empirical method. It allows you to quickly obtain the necessary information. The study is easy to organize regardless of the willingness of one or a group of objects to participate in it.

Disadvantages of psychological observation are divided into 2 groups - objective, independent of the observer, and subjective. They are associated with personal characteristics, professional qualities of the researcher, as well as the attitudes of the experiment participants.

The objective disadvantages of observation in psychology include the following:

• the inability to use tracking often enough when it is necessary to involve a large number of people being observed;
• a limited number of studied processes and related mental phenomena, which leads to a narrowing of the ability to widely generalize the results obtained;
• the difficulty, and often impossibility, of completely repeating the study;
• the ability to draw only qualitative, but not quantitative conclusions;
• frequent occurrence of difficulties with recording and describing the phenomena under study, the need to do this part of the work after the end of the observation;
• insufficient opportunity to obtain information about the goals and reasons for recorded behavior;
• temporary limitation on the time of unfolding of the event;
• the labor-intensive nature of the method, often the need to involve a large number of highly qualified specialists in the research;
• high cost in the case of using special sound and video recording equipment.

Psychologists believe that another disadvantage of observation is that the method does not allow one to directly examine all the facts; many areas are inaccessible for research in this way.

Among the subjective disadvantages:

• the researcher's ability to influence the situation;
• the risk of introducing a subjective opinion or attitudes during the interpretation of the received material, which entails an incorrect interpretation, a discrepancy between the obtained result and the real situation;
• unequal social status, cultural differences, dissimilarity in behavioral stereotypes and life positions of the researcher and the subject can affect the interpretation and distort the result;
• The researcher’s personality traits may affect his perception of the observed situation, which reduces the quality and reliability of the method. For example, if a specialist develops a feeling of condescension towards an object, it is possible to obtain an exaggeratedly positive result. If a psychologist is unconsciously inclined to see the contrast of the participants in the experiment, then he can ignore their characteristic character traits and behavioral manifestations and notice only those that coincide with his perception.

At a certain moment, a psychologist can leave the observer’s position and become involved in the situation. This is fraught with the fact that he will lose the opportunity to objectively assess what is happening.

If the researcher, even before the start of the experiment, has a clearly formed opinion regarding the subject of the study, this may cause the formation of a certain point of view on the situation. Expectation often arises if the researcher has had contact with the person being observed before the experiment. In such a situation, a shift in emphasis during observation is possible.

Psychologists may make mistakes during observation. They, like the problems listed above, arise in the absence of personal therapy and supervision from a specialist. The most common mistakes are:

1. Averaging is the fear of making an extreme judgment. It is based on the belief that extreme behavioral manifestations are much less common than low- and moderate-intensity ones. Avoiding polar assessments, researchers average them and make the results uniform. Using a wide range of estimates when studying the intensity of behavioral manifestations helps to avoid this. A psychologist prone to averaging needs to identify in himself the reason for excessive indulgence (it can be provoked by self-doubt, poor knowledge of the subject of research).
2. Incorrect modeling, in which the researcher uses deduction, is confident that some personality traits are interrelated or contradict each other. Arranging a “logical” conclusion according to the type: a friendly person is good-natured, a good-natured person is trusting or eloquent, an eloquent person is well-educated and educated, an educated person is eloquent, leads to an erroneous result.

The psychologist’s mood during observation can leave an imprint on his perception of the situation, as well as distort the result of the experiment.

The disadvantages of psychological tracking can be overcome by carefully thinking through the program and thoroughly preparing for the work of collecting the necessary information. Monitoring the progress of work by the study organizers also helps to cope with difficulties.

Irina Sherbul

Methods of psychological research.

Scientific research methods are those techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable information, which is then used to build scientific theories and develop practical recommendations.

The phenomena of psychology are so complex and diverse, so difficult to study, that throughout the history of this science its successes have directly depended on the perfection of the research methods used. Over time, it integrated methods from a variety of sciences.

Basic methods:

Observation (external - observation from the outside, internal - self-observation, free, standardized, included, third-party);

Survey (oral, written, standardized);

Tests (questionnaire test, task test, projective test);

Experiment (natural, laboratory);

Modeling (mathematical, logical, technical, cybernetic).

External observation is a way of collecting data about a person’s psychology and behavior by directly observing him from the outside.

Internal observation , or self-observation, is used when a research psychologist sets himself the task of studying a phenomenon of interest to him in the form in which it is directly presented in his mind.

Free observation does not have a pre-established framework, program, or procedure for its implementation. It can change the object or subject of observation, its character during the observation itself, depending on the wishes of the observer.

Standardized observation , in contrast, is predefined and clearly limited in terms of what is observed. It is conducted according to a certain pre-thought-out program and strictly follows it, regardless of what happens during the process of observation with the object or the observer himself.

With participant observation (most often used in general, developmental, educational and social psychology), the researcher acts as a direct participant in the process over which he is observing.

Third-party observation , unlike participant observation, does not imply the personal participation of the observer in the process that he is studying.

Each of these types of observation has its own characteristics and is used where it can give the most reliable results.

A survey is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him.

Oral questioning is used in cases where it is desirable to observe the behavior and reactions of the person answering the questions. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey. However, it requires special preparation, training and, as a rule, high costs for conducting research.

A written survey allows you to reach more people. Its most common form is a questionnaire. Disadvantage: when using a questionnaire, it is impossible to take into account in advance the reactions of the respondent to the content of the questions and, based on this, change them.

A free survey is a type of oral or written survey in which the list of questions asked or possible answers to them is not limited in advance to a certain framework. A survey of this type allows you to flexibly change research tactics, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them.

Tests are specialized methods of psychodiagnostic examination, using which you can obtain an accurate quantitative and qualitative characteristic of the phenomenon being studied. Tests require a clear procedure for collecting and processing primary data, as well as the originality of their subsequent interpretation.

Test options: questionnaire test and task test .

The test questionnaire is based on pre-designed, carefully selected and tested questions for their validity and reliability. By the answers to which one can judge the psychological qualities of the subjects.

The test task involves assessing the psychology and behavior of a person based on what he does. In tests of this type, the subject is offered a series of special tasks, the results of which are used to judge the presence or absence and degree of development of the quality being studied in the subject.

Positive side. Applicable to people of different ages, from different cultures, with different levels of education, different professions and different life experiences.

Disadvantage: The subject can consciously influence the results obtained at will.

In cases where psychological properties and characteristics are to be studied, the existence of which the subject cannot be completely sure of, is not aware of, or does not consciously want to admit their presence in himself, then Projective tests are used.

The basis of such tests is the mechanism of projection, according to which a person tends to attribute his unconscious qualities, especially shortcomings, to other people. Using tests of this kind, the psychology of the subject is judged on the basis of how he perceives and evaluates situations, the psychology and behavior of people, what personal qualities, motives of a positive or negative nature he attributes to them.

The specificity of an experiment as a method of psychological research is that it purposefully and thoughtfully creates an artificial situation in which the property being studied is highlighted, manifested and assessed best. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than all other methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon being studied with other phenomena, and to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development.

Objective data can be obtained through experiment

- a method based on the creation of an artificial situation in which the property being studied is highlighted, manifested and assessed best.

The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than other psychological methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development.

There are two main types of experiment: laboratory and natural.

A laboratory experiment involves creating an artificial situation in which the property being studied can best be assessed. A natural experiment is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere with the course of events, recording them as they are.

The results of a natural experiment are not always accurate due to the experimenter’s lack of ability to strictly control the influence of various factors on the property being studied. From this point of view, the laboratory experiment wins in accuracy, but at the same time is inferior in the degree of correspondence to the life situation.

Another group of methods of psychological science consists of modeling . They should be classified as a separate class of methods. They are used when using other methods is difficult. Their peculiarity is that, on the one hand, they rely on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, their use, as a rule, does not require the participation of subjects or taking into account the real situation. Therefore, it can be very difficult to classify various modeling techniques as objective or subjective methods.

Models can be technical, logical, mathematical, cybernetic, etc. In mathematical modeling, a mathematical expression or formula is used, which reflects the relationship of variables and the relationships between them, reproducing elements and relationships in the phenomena being studied. Technical modeling involves the creation of a device or device that, in its action, resembles what is being studied. Cybernetic modeling is based on the use of concepts from the field of computer science and cybernetics to solve psychological problems. Logic modeling is based on the ideas and symbolism used in mathematical logic.

In addition to these methods, there are other methods for studying mental phenomena. For example, a conversation is a variant of a survey. The conversation method differs from a survey in greater freedom of procedure. As a rule, the conversation is conducted in a relaxed atmosphere, and the content of the questions varies depending on the situation and characteristics of the subject. Another method is: the method of studying documents , or analyzing human activity . It should be borne in mind that the most effective study of mental phenomena is carried out through the complex application of various methods.