Methodology and methods of psychological research

Psychological research: requirements for the organization and its stages

Classification of research methods

Characteristics of the main empirical methods of psychology

Mastery of methods for studying personality psychology is one of the necessary components of a lawyer’s professional activity. A lawyer must be able to identify, analyze and take into account the individual psychological characteristics of a person (witness, suspect, accused), the goals of their actions and actions, hidden motives of behavior. The choice of methods for studying the personality of subjects of various legal relations in the professional activity of a lawyer, as well as the adequacy of the methods themselves, largely depends on the goals that he faces and on the nature of the issues that require resolution.

General concept of methodology

A method (from the Greek methodos - path of research, theory, teaching) is a way of achieving a goal, solving a specific problem;
a set of techniques or operations for practical and theoretical knowledge of reality. In other words, this is the path of knowledge, the way through which the subject of science is known. The doctrine of method constitutes a special field of knowledge - methodology , which is defined as a system of principles and methods of organizing, constructing theoretical and practical activities, a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity. In other words, methodology is a system of basic concepts and principles underlying science and research.

Experiment

Experiment
A specially organized form of research, which consists in obtaining scientific knowledge through targeted intervention in the mental life of the subject.

The main feature that distinguishes experiment from observation is the active position of the researcher.

According to their type, experiments are as follows : laboratory, field (natural), ascertaining, formative, pathopsychological, psychological and pedagogical experiment, etc.

The advantage of the experiment is that it allows the researcher to create certain conditions in order to cause certain mental phenomena or states (for example, stress, monotony, cognitive dissonance, etc.). The experiment also allows the same experiment to be repeated over and over again, which is almost impossible with observation. During repetitions, it is possible to vary the experimental conditions.

Methodology levels

The methodology of psychological research is presented at several levels:

1. Level of philosophical methodology . This level is basic, creating the basis for all subsequent levels, and is represented by the most general principles of knowledge of the world and ideological attitudes. This is the basis on which research activities are based. Major philosophical doctrines act as the methodological basis for specific scientific directions.
2. Level of methodology of general scientific principles of research (general methodology of scientific research) . This level is represented by universal principles, means and forms of scientific knowledge, correlated not with any specific science, but applicable to a wide range of sciences. However, this level of methodology still remains, unlike philosophical methodology, within the framework of scientific knowledge itself, without expanding to a global ideological level. At this level, general problems of constructing scientific research, methods of carrying out theoretical and empirical activities are developed, in particular, general problems of constructing an experiment, observation and modeling.
3. Level of specific scientific methodology (special methodology of scientific research). This level is represented by a set of methodological principles applied specifically in this particular field of knowledge (for example, in psychology). A special methodology is the implementation of philosophical and general scientific principles in relation to a specific object of study. This is also a certain way of knowing, but a way adapted for a narrower sphere of knowledge.
4. Level of research methods and techniques (private methodology of scientific research) . This level is represented by specific empirical methods with the help of which psychological data is collected and processed to solve research problems of a certain type. The specific techniques used in psychological research are not entirely independent of more general methodological considerations.

Observation

The most primary way of obtaining the facts of mental life is observation.

Observation

In psychology, it is a specially organized, purposeful and systematic perception of mental phenomena.

The observation method involves setting a goal, planning, identifying units of observation (a certain type of emotion, words, gestures, etc.), observation conditions, a method of recording results, and the number of observers.

By its type, observation can be : field and laboratory, direct and indirect, included and not included, direct and indirect, continuous and selective, systematic and non-systematic.

The advantages of observation in psychology are considered to be the possibility of direct perception of natural human behavior, and the disadvantage is the influence of a large number of side factors on the process and results of observation.

Methodological principles in psychology

Methodological principles in psychology are divided into general scientific and special. General scientific methodological principles operate at the level of general methodology of scientific research, special ones - at the level of specific scientific methodology.

There are the following basic general scientific methodological principles :

• The principle of determinism is the causality of all phenomena. Each change in an object or phenomenon is a consequence of a certain process and the result of the influence of certain factors. According to this principle, everything that exists arises, changes and ceases to exist naturally.
• The principle of systematicity - all phenomena are in a state of continuous interaction with each other and are elements of systems. Therefore, each phenomenon must be considered only in the process of interaction aimed at achieving the goals of the system. When studying any phenomenon, it is necessary, firstly, to assess the sufficiency of the elements of the system taken for analysis and their necessity for the emergence of a new property, and secondly, it is necessary to highlight the principle of the structure of this system. The principle of systematicity arose in response to two earlier methods of analysis: mechanistic and holistic. The mechanistic approach involved studying each element or its properties separately and attempting to combine these elements to study the properties of the whole. The holistic approach examined the properties of the whole and extended them to individual elements.
• Development principle . Development is the process of an object acquiring a fundamentally new property as a result of the implementation of relationships. Development involves overcoming the measure within the boundaries of which the process of only a quantitative change of an object occurs and involves a change in quality. Development is associated with evolution - the complication of the level of organization of an object. Development differs from formation (formation as the structuring of a system occurs within the development stage). The principle of dialecticity is closely related to the principle of development.
• The principle of dialecticity was formulated by F. Engels. Each subsequent level of development of an object arises on the basis of the previous one and transforms it, leaving for it a certain role in the regulation of interaction. Any new quality of an object is a consequence of a restructuring of its internal structure, which is caused by the requirements of interaction. Perestroika expands the possibilities of interaction and changes the principle of the structure of this system. Example: A person can be considered as a physical body, a biological being and a social being. The physical essence consists of consuming food and converting it into vital energy. Biologically, a person is a subject of psychological relationships; The functioning of the first level, transformed by mental reflection, continues. The personality as a social being is the subject of socio-psychological relations while the functioning of the first two levels continues in a transformed form.

There are the following basic special methodological principles of psychology:

• The principle of psychological determinism is formulated by S.L. Rubinstein. External influence is refracted through the human psyche and only after that affects his reactions and behavior (refraction of the external through the internal). And the internal, in turn, to a certain extent determines those external influences that will influence it.
• The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity - the psyche is manifested and formed in activity. The mental is formed in the process of activity and is a subjective expression of objectively occurring processes. Formed in activity, the psyche regulates this activity and gives it an appropriate character aimed at self-preservation and personal development.
• The principle of development in psychology - the psyche can be correctly understood only if it is considered in continuous development as a process and the result of activity. The study of any mental phenomenon should include a description of its characteristics at a given moment, the history of its occurrence and formation, and development prospects.

See also: Methods of psychological research

Classification of methods: empirical, organizational, data processing, correction.

In psychology, the entire set of methods can be divided into four large groups:

· empirical methods;

· organizational methods;

· data processing methods;

· methods of psychological influence.

Empirical methods (methods of collecting information) include observation and self-observation, experiment, survey methods (conversation, interview, questionnaire), psychodiagnostic methods (tests), analysis of activity products, modeling.

Self-observation (introspection) has long been the only method in psychology. It was believed that consciousness is known differently than the external world, known through the senses, and only the person himself can judge what is happening in his inner world (J. Locke, R. Descartes, W. Wundt). However, this method has a number of disadvantages. Thus, not all mental processes can be observed by us (for example, there are unconscious mental processes). Using introspection, it is difficult to be objective; in addition, knowing the terminology of science, the subject cannot adequately describe his condition. Currently, the subjective method (introspection) is used in medicine and astronautics.

Observation is a consistent and purposeful perception of mental phenomena in order to study their changes under certain circumstances. The necessary conditions for carrying out observation are: a clear observation plan, recording the results of observation, putting forward a hypothesis that explains the observed phenomena, testing the hypothesis in subsequent observations.

The observation procedure includes the following steps:

• defining goals and objectives (for what? for what purpose?),
• choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe?),
• choosing an observation method that has the least impact on the object under study and most ensures the collection of the necessary information (how to observe?),
• choosing methods for recording what is observed (how to keep records?),
• processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result?).

The following types of observation can be distinguished: external (observation from the outside), internal (self-observation), free (has no pre-established framework, procedure, program), standardized (there is a clearly thought-out program, what is observed is limited), included (the researcher is included in composition of the group of subjects), third-party (the observer is not visible to the subjects, it is possible to use a Gesell mirror).

The disadvantages of observation include the following:

— the results of observation can be significantly influenced by the interests, needs, mental states and personal characteristics of the observer;

- the more the observer is focused on confirming the hypothesis, the more distorted the perception of events is;

— observation requires a significant investment of time.

- long-term observation leads to fatigue, adaptation to the situation, therefore, inaccuracy of records is possible.

An experiment is a research activity to study cause-and-effect relationships. An artificial situation is thoughtfully created in which the property being studied is manifested and assessed best.

Types of experiment:

a) natural (under normal conditions an artificial situation is created);

b) laboratory (carried out in laboratory conditions);

c) ascertaining (study of certain psychological phenomena);

d) formative (includes the formation of new qualities in subjects).

Advantages of the experiment: better than other methods, it allows you to study cause-and-effect relationships, understand the origin and development of phenomena; conditions can be repeated. Disadvantages: data from a natural experiment are not always accurate; the results of a laboratory experiment are superior in accuracy, but inferior in the degree of correspondence to life.

Psychodiagnostic methods (tests) make it possible to record and describe in an orderly form psychological differences between people (or groups of people united by certain characteristics).

Test - “sample”, “test” (English). This is a short, standardized test that can be analyzed mathematically.

Types of tests:

a) test questionnaire (this is a system of pre-thought-out, carefully selected and tested questions in terms of validity and reliability, the answers to which can be used to judge the psychological qualities of the subjects);

b) test-tasks (represent a system of special tasks, based on the success of which the psychological characteristics of a person are judged);

c) projective tests (they are based on the mechanism of projection, i.e. a person tends to attribute unconscious positive or negative qualities of his own not to himself, but to other people, to “project” them onto others).

Advantages of tests: applicable to people of different life experiences, professions and ages. Tests are of particular importance in the practice of professional selection for vacant jobs, as well as in personnel certification. Disadvantages: tests do not take into account the dependence of results on the level of development. The test taker can consciously influence the results obtained by knowing how the test is structured.

The purpose of survey methods is to obtain information about objective or subjective facts from the words of the respondents. There are two main types of surveys: written and oral. Questioning is a written survey in which subjects fill out a questionnaire on their own. Advantages of the questionnaire: anonymity, greater sincerity; possibility of mass coverage of a large number of people. The disadvantage of questionnaires is the inability to predict the reaction of subjects to all questions and change their content during the course of the study.

There are two options for oral questioning: interview and conversation. The interview is a face-to-face survey, i.e. here the task is to obtain from him, in direct contact with a person, answers to certain, usually pre-thought-out questions.

A conversation is a method of collecting facts about mental phenomena in the process of personal communication according to a specially designed program. The conversation differs from the actual survey by greater freedom in the procedure. Here you can study not only the content of the answers, but also the subtext, features of intonation, and behavior. You can also obtain data through indirect questions. Disadvantage: conclusions about the mental characteristics of the subjects have to be made on the basis of their own answers. The conversation is used to obtain additional data or to make an initial acquaintance with the subject. Advantages of an oral survey: flexibility of the survey, obtaining more in-depth information than with a written survey. The main shortcomings of the researcher during the conversation and interview are thoughtless and fragmentary perception, inability to listen carefully to the interlocutor, analyze and adequately interpret the obtained facts

Disadvantages of the survey as a whole: the data are based on self-observation; the responses of the subjects cannot be correlated with their actual activities and behavior.

The study of the products of activity (play, work, study) is a study of drawings, crafts, essays, etc. A variation is the biographical method. The value of studying the products of activity is that the researcher has materially recorded products of activity; he can return to them and compare them. However, when using this method it is not always possible to reveal the diversity of mental activity.

The modeling method is used when the use of other methods is difficult. Its peculiarity is that, on the one hand, it relies on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, its use does not require the participation of subjects or taking into account the real situation. Models can be technical, cybernetic, mathematical, logical, etc.

Organizational methods:

· comparative method (comparing groups of subjects according to some characteristics; most widely used in zoopsychology and child psychology);

· cross-sectional method (studying the development of any mental functions through a comparative study of groups of subjects differing only in age; in this case, the differences between the compared samples in age should be smaller, the earlier periods of development are studied)

· longitudinal method (multiple examination of individuals over a long period of time);

· complex method (representatives of various sciences participate in the study, and, as a rule, one object is studied by different means. Research of this kind makes it possible to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena of different types, for example, between the physiological, psychological and social development of the individual).

Data processing methods include quantitative (statistical) analysis and qualitative method (differentiation of material into groups). The purpose of using methods of mathematical statistics: to increase the validity of the conclusions of psychological research through the use of probabilistic models and logic (i.e. confirm or refute the research hypothesis).

Methods of psychological influence are a set of techniques, methods and programs that influence people’s behavior. These methods are used after studying an individual or group using information gathering techniques. There are three main methods of this group: the method of presenting models, discussion, training.

The method of presenting models is based on the use of mechanisms of mental infection, suggestion and imitation. Emotional contagion is a process based on the unconscious transfer from subject to subject of mental states of various kinds. Based on emotional contagion, imitation often occurs - copying the behavioral acts and actions of another person. Copying is based on the identification mechanism: a person wants to be like someone who is authoritative for him.

There are two possible options for using the method of presenting models: presenting other people’s behavior as samples and using various characters from movies, works of fiction, etc.

Discussion is a discussion of an issue in order to find the optimal solution. Rules for conducting effective discussions: speak in turns without interrupting each other, clarify the meaning of what the interlocutor said, provide an opportunity for each participant in the discussion to speak, and periodically summarize what was said in the group. The predominant mechanism of influence in the discussion is persuasion - the process of influencing a person’s judgments by the power of logical evidence.

Training is a method of influence aimed at creating new mental formations or developing existing ones. There are three types of training: functional (aimed at developing basic mental functions and processes - memory, thinking and will); auto-training (formation and development of mental self-regulation and relaxation skills); socio-psychological training (communication training, self-confidence training, leadership skills training, etc.)

Methods of psychological research

A method is a method of reasoning that consists of certain standards. In accordance with them, there is a correlation between empirical facts and theoretical explanations.

The method is relatively free from the procedural aspects of selecting empirical facts, since it is not limited to a specific subject area of ​​psychological science. It makes it possible to determine the ways of the research attitude to the reality under study. In this case, methodology must be considered as a procedure or “technique” for collecting data that is included in various research designs.

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Psychologists distinguish between the structure of a general technique and the description of a special technique. Specific techniques are designed to be included in different research designs. For example, an indicator such as galvanic skin response (GSR) has been used in science under conditions that differ significantly from each other (identifying different types of tension, including operational and emotional).

To select variables when implementing the experimental method, psychologists use various techniques, including psychological ones. Thus, observation and measurement of variables can act as conditions for the implementation of the experimental method. This is provided for cases where the technique is meant as a way to obtain psychological indicators.

The status of methods for identifying variables is similar when they are used as psychodiagnostic tools in the implementation of an experimental method. However, psychodiagnostics as a method of constructing psychological research with goals other than testing causal hypotheses is based on different standards than experiment.

Methods and techniques of psychology

Definition 2

The category of methods in modern scientific literature refers to methods of studying mental phenomena, mental processes, and mental activity.

The main requirements for psychological methods are the following:

• validity – the quality of a method, reflecting the degree of possible changes in the parameter for which it is intended to be studied;
• reliability – the quality of a method that allows one to obtain similar results with repeated use;
• Representativeness is the quality of a method that allows it to reflect the characteristics of the study population.

Definition 3

Methodology in modern psychology refers to methods of expediently carrying out certain work and implementing certain activities.