HISTORY OF ORIGIN
The psychology of children began to be studied relatively recently, only at the end of the 19th century. The rapid development of industry and a new level of social life created the preconditions for the emergence of modern schools. The question of the correctness of education by force - through physical punishment - has become acute. And then the task arose - to learn to understand a small child.
The impetus for in-depth research was V. Preyer’s book “The Soul of a Child.” A German scientist observed the development of his own son’s psyche and recorded the results daily. Particular attention in the book is paid to the gradual improvement of motor skills, sensory organs, reason, speech, and will. Today the scientist’s works are considered somewhat outdated, but it was they that laid the foundation for child psychology as an independent discipline.
TASKS AND GOALS
Child psychology is a branch of general psychology that studies the characteristics of the inner life of a child, the patterns of mental formation between the ages of 0 and 17 years. Science is closely related to other disciplines: pedagogy, developmental morphology and physiology, general psychology. Its immediate goal is to identify the conditions of mental development.
Child psychology sets itself the following tasks:
- find out the driving reasons for the individual development of the organism (ontogenesis);
- establish the age limits of development and the conditions for transition from one stage to another;
- study the manifestations of mental functions at different ages and scientifically substantiate the norms;
- determine standards of personality maturity;
- find out a person’s capabilities at different periods of life, including potential ones;
- make a forecast of mental development.
Principles, structure and tasks of psychology
The principle of determinism . This principle means, firstly, that all mental phenomena, like the psyche as a whole, are understood as a secondary formation, as phenomena causally determined by objective reality, as a reflection of this reality. Secondly, this principle means that all mental phenomena are considered as caused by the activity of the brain. Thirdly, this principle presupposes, when studying mental phenomena, the obligatory establishment of the causes that caused these phenomena.
The genetic principle , firstly, is expressed in the fact that all mental phenomena are considered as constantly changing and developing quantitatively and qualitatively. Secondly, this principle means that a correct and complete characterization of any mental phenomenon is possible only if its characteristic features at a given moment, the history or causes of the occurrence of the mental phenomenon, and possible prospects for its subsequent changes are simultaneously clarified.
Unity of consciousness and activity . The essence of this principle is that activity is understood as a condition for the emergence, a factor in the formation and an object of application of human consciousness. The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity means that consciousness is the regulator of human behavior and actions. A unified consideration of consciousness and activity in psychology is expressed in the fact that they are always studied as inherent in a socially and historically defined individual.
The Structure of Psychology . Psychological science at the present stage of development is a complex and branched system of scientific disciplines. Individual areas of psychology are closely related to each other.
The following areas of psychology can be distinguished (the classification is based on the object of psychological study):
1) general psychology studies the most general patterns of mental activity of a normal adult person;
2) developmental psychology studies the patterns of human mental development, the formation of various mental processes and mental properties of the individual;
3) educational psychology studies the psychological foundations of teaching and upbringing, the psychological patterns of teaching and upbringing and is directly related to developmental psychology;
4) legal psychology studies problems related to the psychological aspects of the investigation, analysis of testimony, interrogation requirements, etc.;
5) military psychology deals with human psychology in a military situation in combat conditions, a high degree of danger.
METHODS OF STUDYING THE CHILD'S PSYCHE
The study of children's mental development is based on the principles of general psychology: the unity of the psyche and activity, determinism, objectivity and development. In short, for the results of the study to be reliable, it is necessary to take into account the degree of maturity of the nervous system, have in-depth knowledge of the mental characteristics of the previous age, and conduct the experiment in the most natural environment possible. When making a comparative analysis, the socio-economic, ethnic and other differences of children should be taken into account.
There are 4 main methods of child psychology.
- Observation. The method consists of tracking the behavior of children in familiar conditions. To achieve results, they set certain goals. A psychologist observes the child’s actions with objects, his statements, and movements. Afterwards, he interprets what mental processes are behind external manifestations.
- Survey. In a conversation, the researcher finds out the child’s knowledge, his opinion about himself, other people, as well as about events, actions, and objects. Questions should be formulated clearly and interestingly. To prevent suggestion from happening, you need to ask without prompting (for example: “Are you offended by your mother?”). With preschool children, conversation time is limited, and up to 4 years old, pictures are provided for answers.
- Experiment. It makes it possible to evoke manifestations of interest in the child’s psyche and then evaluate them. The experiment involves changing the operating conditions and setting certain tasks. By how a child behaves and what choices he makes, his psychological characteristics are judged. The method is carried out in a playful way (in uncomfortable conditions, children often act at random).
- Assessment of labor results. Various drawings, applications, and essays reflect the peculiarities of perception of objects or people from the environment. Also, a child’s crafts allow us to judge the degree of development of his mental abilities. A product made according to the instructions of an adult indicates an understanding of these instructions, the ability to complete the task, conscientiousness, and attentiveness.
Additionally, testing and a sociometric method are used to study the child’s psyche, where relationships between children and the desire for friendly connections are studied. In preschool institutions, participant observation by the teacher is mandatory. In this case, the purpose of the study is to clarify the individual psychological characteristics of the child in order to identify the optimal approach to him.
STAGES OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT
The process of forming a child’s psyche is very long and subtle. It is influenced by many factors: heredity, environment, upbringing and training, activity, etc. For a better understanding of children and high-quality tracking of development, the so-called age periodization was introduced. D. B. Elkoin divided the process of mental formation into stages, where the key moment is the child’s leading activity. There are 6 such periods in total.
FROM 0 TO ONE YEAR (INFANCY)
The child’s activity is determined by emotional communication with adults; he is in close contact with his mother and depends on her. Psychological development is affected by new formations: independent movement in space, emotional representations, discovery of one’s own self (physical), oneself as part of the world of people.
FROM ONE TO 3 YEARS (EARLY CHILDHOOD)
The activity with objects becomes the leader. They are also social tools. The child’s speech develops, he strives for independence, imitates an adult, uses the pronoun “I,” and is proud of his successes. The adult ceases to act as an intermediary between the baby and the outside world and now plays the role of an assistant.
FROM 3 YEARS BEFORE ENTERING SCHOOL (PRESCHOOL AGE)
Actions and mental development are determined by role-playing games. Egocentrism is overcome, the first understanding of good and evil comes. Behavior becomes arbitrary, a hierarchy of motives is built, the child strives for cognitive activity and can replace one object with another. There is an opening of the inner world. The behavior of an adult is considered an example; a preschooler tries to behave similarly among his peers.
FROM 7 TO 11 YEARS (EARLY SCHOOL AGE)
The leading activity is educational. The child masters simple methods of operating in the scientific field. His will and theoretical thinking are formed. The ability to plan appears, mental functions are intellectualized. Relationships with an adult develop in two directions - as with a loved one and as with a social figure. The child’s external world undergoes major changes due to the need to attend school.
FROM 12 TO 15 YEARS OLD (JUNIOR ADOLESCENCE)
Activity is determined by the desire to know other people, oneself, and relationships. Norms of social behavior are learned. The teenager begins to feel like an adult, self-awareness comes, the discovery of the inner “I”. Relationships with teachers, relatives, and peers change due to a new understanding of oneself and the desire to find one’s place in society. Communication with peers becomes intimate and personal, going beyond the scope of study. Teenagers gather in groups where they master the norms of social relations and their regulation.
FROM 15 TO 17 YEARS OLD (SENIOR ADOLESCENCE)
In the development of the psyche, a decisive role is played by activities related to vocational training, choice of profession, and deepening into a narrow specialization. Externally, changes in the educational process occur, the teenager takes the first steps towards self-education, attends certain courses and sections. Orientation in the value system is formed, self-determination occurs - both personally and professionally.
The psyche of a child is different from the psyche of adults. At different stages of growing up, a person’s activities, his way of life, relationships with society, and even his own body change. In just 5 years, he turns from a rattling baby into a personality with his own preferences, tastes, and habits. The psyche in childhood is as plastic as possible. It is easy to correct by simply directing activities in the right direction. But an adult is already formed, it is difficult to modify his psyche. Therefore, already in early childhood, parents should pay attention to the child’s worldview, have frank conversations with him, analyze his crafts and drawings, and if necessary, do not be afraid to turn to a specialist.
Psychology
§ 2. Functions and methods of practical psychology
The function of psychodiagnostics is primarily to assess the situation, and the main goal of such an assessment is to isolate the psychological essence of a practical problem, that is, to formulate the real problem in terms of psychological situations studied or being studied in theoretical and experimental psychology. In this process, there is an assessment of the psychological characteristics of the creature and the conditions of the task itself, the characteristics of the subject solving it; disclosure of possible psychological mechanisms and ways to solve it. The situation is assessed using psychodiagnostic methods, in which a psychological classification and analysis of the space of life situations and tasks that arise before a person at a given segment of his life path is performed. As a result of psychodiagnostics, the following occurs:
• identification of real problems in space and classes of psychologically solvable problems;
• identification of properties and qualities of people and groups in the system of corresponding psychological categories and types. The most important requirement here is the practical validity of psychodiagnostic methods.
There are important consequences of the psychological assessment of the situation, in particular the psychodiagnostics of tasks. First of all, at this stage, one can assess the ability of psychological science to solve the problem that has arisen. Moreover, if this practical problem cannot be solved, then based on the results of psychodiagnostics, new research tasks can be set, including identifying new fundamental problems that need to be posed to psychological science.
The second function - psychoprognosis, or drawing up a psychological forecast - is to assess the possible dynamics of the analyzed tasks in new conditions. Here there is an assessment of the ways of developing the situation, methods for solving the specified problem, correlation and correspondence of the boundaries of the class of psychological and real problems. Essentially, after diagnosing the problem, we move on to assessing how we can expand the scope of application of psychological knowledge: transfer the obtained solutions to new, not yet explored conditions.
Rice. 2.6.
Methods of practical psychology
This function is implemented using a system of forecasting methods, including forecasting the consequences of adopted practical recommendations. We have seen that the use of psychodiagnostics is based primarily on existing knowledge of psychology, and psychodiagnostic methods can be defined as empirical methods for identifying a real object. When making a forecast, the methods used are much broader, and the theoretical basis for the forecast should be more thorough.
The implementation of the predictive function in practical psychology, of course, is based on both empirical and theoretical methods. When forecasting, at least partially, the meaning of the ideal objects of psychological theory changes. On the one hand, the use of theoretical methods makes it possible to evaluate the behavior of ideal objects under new conditions, and on the other hand (when using empirical methods for prediction) the experimental procedures themselves can act as ideal objects for a certain class of practical problems. Clearly, this means that the basis of the forecast in any case is the theoretical result - and it is necessary to evaluate its potential practical reliability.
In contrast to psychodiagnostics and psychoprognosis (correlating the real situation and scientific psychological knowledge), the third function - psychological influence and control - consists of the practical implementation of scientific knowledge in the actions and recommendations of a psychologist. Here the return of scientific knowledge to life takes place and this causes a sharp change in methods: from the usual empirical and theoretical procedures, similar to research, the specialist psychologist moves on to practical influence on people and groups. Therefore, the third function can be defined as a control function, and the system of methods used in its implementation should be designated as a system of methods of psychological influence and management.
The implementation of this function in practice requires the presentation of theoretical knowledge in the highest concrete and constructive form. This, of course, places additional demands on scientific psychology, in particular the requirements of reality (in form), constructiveness (in content) and humanity (in goals) of the system of psychological management methods.
According to the method of application of psychological knowledge, three functions of practical psychology are distinguished: psychodiagnostics, when the main thing is the identification of real objects, that is, their projection into a system of psychological categories and determination of their place (localization) in the system of ideal objects of the theory; psychoprognostics, when theoretical knowledge and, first of all, ideal objects of theory are used to obtain new knowledge about possible changes in the properties of real objects; there is, as it were, a projection of scientific knowledge onto new conditions or onto other tasks and objects; psychological influence and control, when the knowledge and methods available in the fundamental and applied branches of psychology are used to develop real control actions.
The selected functions are divided as follows. In psychodiagnostics, all objects are actually specified: people, practical problems and the conditions in which these problems must be solved are known.
When making a forecast, some objects are given in reality, and some are specified only potentially, since it is not possible to create and empirically study all tasks and conditions.
With psychological influence and control, some objects must be designed and then created on the basis of psychological knowledge: it is necessary to form some new mental qualities of people, form new patterns of behavior - or design new features of the task, change the conditions for their solution, etc.
The functions of practical psychology are realized both in the analysis and solution of an integral problem, and when considering its individual components: when working with people, groups and teams; when assessing and changing components and their operating conditions.
These functions themselves form an integral system of practical psychology, which, in turn, can be subjected to special analysis. They are inextricably linked with the system of methods for their implementation, therefore, when discussing practical examples and scientific problems, it is advisable to consider them together.
The peculiarities of the methods of practical psychology are quite clearly manifested in the widespread area of classical psychodiagnostics - when assessing the mental qualities of individuals, especially those that are most important for a particular type of activity. The analysis will show that in this case, too, serious methodological and theoretical problems can be discovered, the solution of which can only be found by turning to fundamental psychological research.
The meaning of individual psychodiagnostics is to assess the basic mental properties of a particular person in relation to the general patterns and properties revealed in the system of psychological knowledge - in general and differential psychology and psychophysiology. As we have already noted, this assessment can be considered as the result of identifying a real object in terms and in the system of psychological knowledge. Therefore, diagnostic tasks require the use of complex integrated procedures and the subsequent interpretation of the diagnosed properties and qualities of an individual in terms of categories and ideal objects of psychological science.
It is possible to distinguish different variants of psychodiagnostic approaches, in line with which specific methods for obtaining, processing and interpreting data are formed. The first option (one of the most common) provides for a qualitative classification of a person’s special properties in relation to the general (general) population of people or a sufficiently large (representative) sample from it.
The task is to identify the belonging of a given individual to a certain class in a certain set of mental qualities (for example, types of individual characteristics of the organization of the intellectual, emotional and volitional sphere, types of temperament, etc.).
The most common methods and techniques of such classification diagnostics are various scales, profiles, questionnaires, test batteries and other non-hardware and instrumental techniques, widely known in differential psychology and psychophysiology. One of the simplest, but important examples of this type is the differential diagnosis of the properties of the nervous system, developed in the domestic school of differential psychophysiology [V. D. Nebylitsyn, 1966; V. M. Rusalov, 1983, 2000]. Another example in this area is the diagnosis of personality types using complex structural questionnaires or the study of intelligence types using a battery of tests [ see,
for example, A. Anastasi, 1982; K. M. Gurevich, 1983].
Classification diagnostic methods can be used both for research purposes and for solving practical problems. The research goal is to, based on the analysis of some characteristics of the population, determine stable typical formations (classes, clusters, taxa, etc.). It is assumed that the nature of an individual’s behavior and activity directly depends on the characteristics of the class to which he is assigned.
Thus, the principle of equivalence and interchangeability of class representatives is implicitly implemented. This principle and its applicability in psychology have not been specifically studied, but it is widely used for both scientific and practical purposes, when the characteristics of the class to which he belongs are transferred to an individual, and the patterns established for the class are considered true for each specific representative of it.
The second version of the diagnostic approach is very closely related to the first in terms of initial ideas, methods and interpretation: it represents the next, higher level of analysis and generalization of the original empirical data. This version of the approach is usually called the representation of a real object in multidimensional space. Space itself includes a limited set of qualitative features that are considered (at least potentially) interpretable in a psychological sense, sufficient to describe real objects. The initial theoretical premise is that, in principle, it is possible to find a not very large number of weakly related features, with the help of which it is possible to describe the object being examined as a point in the multidimensional space of these features.
If, as a result of the survey, it is possible to describe some properties of a particular individual in the specified form, then, using special procedures of formal multidimensional analysis, it is possible to determine its localization in the selected coordinate system. In this case, there is the potential to compare individuals who differ from each other, even if they belong to the same class. The introduction of a quantitative measure of features provides an additional opportunity to more accurately identify a real object.
The specific grounds for choosing an a priori coordinate system in this version of the diagnostic approach are special ideal objects of psychological theory: various multi-parameter (complex, complex, multifaceted, etc.) models of mental formations. These can be personality models, ranging from the simplest “flat” ones to hierarchical structural models. Examples of the implementation of this approach are well-known and very common diagnostic procedures: factor, correlation and regression models and methods; models and methods of semantic differentials; multidimensional scaling methods, etc.
These methods are used in conjunction with formal data processing techniques; in some useful cases, they make it possible to determine a minimum set of understandable features (“axes” of the selected coordinate system), with the help of which it is possible to describe the diagnosed object or class of objects with sufficient completeness.
From a theoretical point of view, it is important that the second version of the diagnostic approach deals with relations of non-equivalence, i.e. those that make it possible to distinguish and order the objects being examined. A number of problems arise in choosing a measure for such ordering, since here, unlike the third option, which will be discussed below, this measure cannot always be defined in a natural way. It is in this sense that one of the most acute problems of this kind of diagnostics is the standardization of assessments of various scales in test batteries.
The third version of the diagnostic approach can be defined as diagnostics based on a standard, i.e., diagnostics that is carried out by comparing or relating the object under study to some standard. Two cases are possible: the standard coincides with the real object or it is not among the real objects.
In the first case, we talk about identification by an empirical standard. There are many examples of this kind: qualified specialists, experts, instructors, etc. can act as empirical standards. They often serve as real guidelines for solving many problems of selection, training and education.
In the case when the standard itself is not among the real objects, it is advisable, in our opinion, to talk about diagnostics using an “ideal standard” or, which is probably better, about diagnostics using an ideal object. If we proceed from the requirements of practice, i.e., consider this problem from the point of view of providing practical problems with fundamental research, then such an ideal object should act as one of the main categories of psychological analysis. If we move in the other direction - from theory to practice, then the ideal object acts as a valid measure of comparison of real objects (since it must contain the most important, from the point of view of the problems being solved, properties and qualities of the real object).
In most real-life problems, diagnostics based on an ideal object is the most promising way to introduce psychological knowledge into practice.
We have dwelt in some detail on the analysis of the main diagnostic methods in practical psychology, not only because they are widespread, but also because these methods actually form the basis of any research and practical work. It is quite obvious that, before somehow using the arsenal of psychological knowledge for practical purposes (be it in research or clinic, school, production or management), it is necessary to accurately define the object with which we are dealing. This is the essence of using psychodiagnostic methods. It is clear that the analysis of the application of other practical methods (forecast, influence and control) should also lead to the formulation of many new theoretical problems.
The task of forecasting is the second task of practical psychology after diagnosis. Its solution provides, in particular, an answer to the question of what will happen to a real individual whom we are examining at the moment if the conditions of his life change. For example, will he cope with solving some new problem; how his special abilities will develop; how the skills will function, whether it is possible to maintain the usual norms of behavior in unusual operating conditions (with increased mental tension, in conditions of danger, etc.).
The main difference between prognostic methods and diagnostic methods is that there is virtually no direct contact between the specialist and the actual object being examined at the moment. Forecasting tasks require mandatory reference to theoretical constructs. Thus, the function of prognosis in practical psychology is immeasurably greater than the function of diagnosis; it includes theoretical concepts and theoretical knowledge of psychology. Moreover, the very idea of forecasting, even if empirical forecasting methods are used, is based on very strong theoretical assumptions that have not been fully proven within the framework of psychological science itself.
We are talking about the so-called principle of continuity (Zabrodin, 1980, 2002) or the postulate of gradual change, which is very often, although implicitly, used to justify forecasts when solving practical problems.
Let us explain the essence of this postulate. Let us consider, as an example, the case when a psychologist experimentally models some possible situations and tasks that arise in real activity; Moreover, the empirical conditions do not differ too much from those for which the forecast will be made. In these experimental model conditions, the psychologist observes some psychological—personal and behavioral—effects. In this case, in accordance with the postulate of gradual changes, it can be argued that the effects observed in such an experiment will differ little from the expected reality, i.e. they can be used as a sufficient basis for a prediction.
In diagnostics, theoretical knowledge of psychology acts as a certain initial “coordinate system”, and the work is carried out using empirical methods. The forecast is much more based on deep methodological principles and chooses theoretical procedures as its methodological tool: with their help, empirical knowledge about a person is transformed, i.e., a transition is made from existing, initial situations to those situations for which the forecast is formed.
The function of psychological influence and control, as well as the functions of diagnosis and prognosis, is implemented using special methods and techniques of influencing the mental qualities, behavior, and activities of a real person. It is in this function of practical psychology that methodological problems are most acute, and its social, humanitarian and even ideological role is most clearly manifested: here, as in a mirror, the real goals of society are reflected. In some cases, this is the strengthening of social and racial inequality, the depersonalization of a person, the stratification of the ruling elite, which occurs against the backdrop of powerful propaganda of “convergence”, “social partnership”, etc. In other cases - in socially oriented societies - this is social assistance and clear social policy , democratization and humanization of spheres of public life, support and development of the personality of each member of society.
It is fundamentally important that the methods of psychological influence and management provide for the synthesis of psychological knowledge from different areas of psychological science, and, naturally, the task of methodological and theoretical justification for such a synthesis arises. The system of control methods used by practical psychology, of course, must have a hierarchical structure and include such diverse methods of influence as direct and indirect control; influence by word, example, relationships and living conditions; inclusion of the individual in public and self-government; management through targeted selection, selection and training of people; the use of various methods of organizing labor technology and labor regimes, including the combination and division of various types of labor, the development of new forms of behavior, managing the choice of available forms of behavior and some other methods of influence.
The system of psychological management methods seems to reflect the system of research methods, directing psychological knowledge into the areas of practical activity of people. One of its main features is that the techniques and procedures used in practice are often radically different from known psychological procedures.
In this sense, many methods of influence are, at first glance, “non-psychological” in nature: for example, limiting the available means and methods of activity. (However, it should be remembered that it is the limitation, in particular the control, of some influencing factors and conditions that is a mandatory requirement, even an attribute of a psychological experiment.)
At the same time, this is precisely the most difficult task of psychological science: in order to implement the management function, methods must be developed that have a deep psychological basis. These methods need to be brought to a form that would “work” in real life, which means that they would cease to be “psychological” and would turn into real social, interpersonal and other relationships of people.
Thus, it is quite natural that practical psychology performs its functions with the help of special techniques and methods: these include psychodiagnostics, psychological prognosis and psychological management.
Among the specific methods of psychodiagnostics, we should highlight, firstly, introscopic methods:
direct - such as introspection (including included, one of the variants of which is widely known as the labor method), introspection, etc.;
indirect methods: in-depth interviews, anamnestic questionnaires, self-assessment questionnaires, etc.
Yu. M. Zabrodin called another group of psychodiagnostic methods extrascopic: observation, survey, questionnaire - expert assessment, assessment of other people (for example, MY, GOL, etc.); situational tests of special abilities and individual functions, activity model tests, etc.
A separate group consists of complex methods: test batteries; multiscale and multidimensional questionnaires; projective tests, which are based on knowledge, assimilation and implementation of social norms (ideals, values, models and rules of behavior, etc.). The goal of all psychodiagnostic methods is to identify the object being examined in terms of psychological knowledge, and the result is the construction of an understandable “psychological portrait” of this object.
Methods of psychological forecasting (calculation) are based on knowledge of psychological laws and include the following forms:
prediction of existence (when the unknown is assumed based on a set of known qualities);
forecast of successful functioning (including functioning in other conditions);
forecast of sustainability (existence in extreme conditions and determination of the boundaries of this existence, for example, under conditions of stress), etc.
Methods of psychological influence and management (including correction) are based on knowledge of the effects and mechanisms of action of certain factors that influence the properties and states of the psyche, the behavior and activities of people. These methods include control through the action of external factors, such as, for example, factors of social influence - command, coercion, persuasion, suggestion, infection, transfer (imitation), encouragement, punishment, etc.;
management of habitat, working and living conditions;
management through relationships, through influence on the system of relationships in which the subject is included.
It is possible, in principle, to control through the action of internal factors of self-regulation: self-education, self-government, auto-training, group training, etc.
Among the methods of psychological management, it is advisable to distinguish between functional management and evolutionary (developmental) management.
In all cases, we can talk about different psychological mechanisms and different “psychological addresses” of the action of control factors. So, for example, in psychological practice one can find “coercive” control or “pressure”, which is carried out in a passive form - through the establishment or removal of restrictions on the “degrees of freedom” of the subject’s movement; or in an active form - through setting tasks and goals, coercion and order.
Another example is provided by the so-called “cognitive” control mechanisms: they work through persuasion (argumentation) and suggestion (trust, faith). One of the options for cognitive management is “information” management in virtual reality - through the information base for decision-making, the formation of opinions and assessments, the use of significant information and misinformation, etc. It is clear that the development and classification of various forms of psychological management will require special additional efforts.
The variety of specific forms and technologies for implementing the functions and methods of practical psychology discussed above makes the problem of scientific justification, reliability assessment and determination of the limits of action of these methods especially relevant.
