1. Attention span.

Attention span

When studying attention experimentally, its volume . This is the number of unrelated objects that can be perceived simultaneously, clearly and distinctly. In an adult, the volume of visual attention is 3-5 (rarely 6) objects. Junior schoolchildren have 2-4 objects. The volume of auditory attention is usually one less. Training only stabilizes the results at the upper limit. However, the amount of attention also depends on familiarity with the material and interest.

Functions, physiological basis and types of attention

Attention takes part in all human mental processes and performs the following functions:

Screening out insignificant stimuli from significant and important ones.
Maintaining concentration until the right moment.
Implementation of regulation and control of all activities.

Physiological basis of attention

Attention is carried out using brain structures, namely the reticular formation.

This is the reticular structure of the brain. The basis of attention can be called setting a certain state of the brain.

With the help of attention, a person focuses on some object. To do this, he tunes all senses to perception.

Types of attention

There are 3 main types of attention:

Involuntary attention Occurs under the influence of a strong stimulus, without the volitional influence of a person. There are 3 subspecies:

forced – difficult to control, for example, to superstimuli;
involuntary - to objects that satisfy needs;
familiar - based on the basics of human activity.

Voluntary attention Arises under the influence of a person’s will, when a person concentrates on achieving a goal. Highlight:

volitional;
expectant;
spontaneous.

Post-voluntary attention It is purposeful in nature, but requires volitional efforts only at the beginning, and then the person becomes interested in the process and will is no longer required.

Switching attention

It differs from distraction in that it is performed by a person consciously. Therefore, a simple transfer of attention to another object cannot be considered a switch: it must be associated with setting a new goal. Initially, it was believed that the ability to shift attention was innate and available to few people. Later it was shown that special training can improve attention switching.

With a high concentration of attention, switching it is difficult. This leads to absent-mindedness, which comes in two forms.

Firstly, there is an inability to concentrate attention for any length of time - it constantly “slides”, a person is constantly distracted. One of the reasons for such absent-mindedness may be an excess of all kinds of shallow interests.

Secondly, there is absent-mindedness as a one-sided concentration of consciousness, when a person does not notice what, from his point of view, seems insignificant. A classic example is the absent-mindedness of a scientist who is absorbed in his work and does not ignore the various “little things in life.”

Theories of attention

So, the most popular theories of attention include:

Theodule Ribot's theory. According to her, attention is closely related to emotions. They are the ones who call him. The state of attention is characterized by changes in the physical and physiological state of the body, for example, increased blood circulation in actively involved organs, motor, respiratory and vascular reactions. The state of concentration is characterized by movement of all parts of the body, which allows you to maintain attention.
The theory of Peter Galperin. Attention is a psychological action aimed at the content of a thought, image or other phenomenon that is currently in the human mind. Attention performs the function of controlling content and is an independent act, where the action is performed not just in the mind, but also in an abbreviated form. Voluntary attention is carried out systematically. Any type of attention is the result of the formation of new efforts of the mind.
Donald Broadband's theory. When a person performs two things at the same time, the so-called filter, which passes through itself and recognizes objects of attention, switches from one channel of perception to another. The amount of data taken into account depends on the bandwidth of the channel. The author of the theory was able to justify the filtering process, but he was unable to explain how data that does not attract attention is perceived.
The theory of Anna Treisman. Broadband's theory is complemented here: the perceptual register and the limited-capacity filter are separated by an attenuating device. This device attenuates the signal and also performs semantic analysis.
Diana and Anthony Deutsch's theory. Any stimulus is first processed in working memory, and selection is carried out when the information itself is processed. The memory capacity is limited, as a result of which only a fraction of the data remains in it. And this part is already analyzed - the information is assessed as important or not important.

Among other theories, the theories of Daniel Kahneman, William James, Nikolai Lange, Dmitry Uznadze, Lev Vygotsky and others stand out. All of them are interesting in their own way and worthy of study.

Of course, issues related to the topic of attention cannot be considered in one article. Therefore, we advise you to turn to the works of the above-mentioned researchers - then it will become much easier to understand how attention works. So develop your thinking, read more and never stop learning. We wish you success!

We also recommend reading:

Storytelling
Cognitive sphere of personality
Visuospatial Corsi test: description and application
Concentration: exercises
Attention training
Eriksen's flank task
Involuntary memorization: why unnecessary information is remembered, but necessary information flies out of the head
How to develop attention
Intelligence and its development: several recommendations
Development of attention: features and useful tips
Mental processes: types and brief description

Key words:1Mnemonics

Sustainability of attention

This is the duration of concentration of consciousness. What does it depend on? When the object of attention does not provide new impressions, attention is distracted from it. Consequently, attention can be maintained only by constantly revealing new content in the object of attention.

Georges Cuvier claims that genius is first and foremost attention. He writes that an intellect that is poor in knowledge, immobile and unoriginal, is unlikely to be able to focus its attention on one subject for long. Therefore, we can say that it is not attention that creates a genius, but genius allows one to maintain stable attention and find more and more new aspects in familiar things.

Other factors of attention stability are:

interest in the material
connection of the material being studied with the needs of the individual
content and complexity of the work performed
comfortable or distracting conditions in which work takes place
personality traits (for example, temperament and volitional qualities).

Features of attention

Features of attention are expressed in its properties: volume, concentration, distribution, stability, fluctuations and switchability. A little about each of them:

Volume – expressed in the number of simultaneously perceived objects. It depends on genetic factors, the potential of short-term memory (by the way, we advise you to read about Miller’s wallet on this topic), existing experience, professional skills, goals and nuances of perceived objects.
Concentration is the level of concentration of the psyche on an object. In the process of concentration, a temporary focus of mental activity is created. The smaller the volume of perceived objects, the higher the concentration. Read more about attention and concentration here.
Distributivity is a person’s ability to simultaneously perform a number of actions or observe several objects or phenomena. The distribution of attention is due to the fact that the brain can optimally distribute excitability across cortical areas. This provides the ability to manage several processes simultaneously.
Sustainability is a general focus. It depends on the type of nervous system, motivation and temperament. The most important condition for sustainability is the diversity of impressions received. Its opposite property is distractibility. We also have interesting material on the topic of attention stability.
Fluctuations are phenomena that are observed even when a person is concentrated and tense. They are explained by the process of constant change of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex. If fluctuations occur over a long period of time, they can cause involuntary distraction.
Switchability is a restructuring of attention from one object or phenomenon to another. Switchability can be voluntary or involuntary. The first occurs when the nature of the activity changes or new tasks are set, and the person makes volitional efforts. The second occurs without the participation of the will, but under the influence of external factors.

These are the main features of attention. You should know that the development of attention (as well as attention training) requires the activation of all its properties in this process.

Finally, attention theories can help us gain additional insight into how attention works. For informational purposes only, let’s say a little about the most common ones.

Sources

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World of Psychology

Attention is the focus of the psyche (consciousness) on certain objects that have stable or situational significance for the individual, the concentration of the psyche (consciousness), suggesting an increased level of sensory, intellectual or motor activity.

There are three types of attention: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

Involuntary attention (passive, emotional) is the concentration of consciousness on an object due to some of its characteristics. With passivity, there is a dependence of involuntary attention on the object that attracted it, and there is no effort on the part of the person aimed at focusing. When involuntary attention is emotional, the connection between the object of attention and emotions, interests, and needs is highlighted. In this case, there is also no volitional effort aimed at concentration.

Any stimulus, changing the strength of its action, attracts attention. The novelty of the stimulus also causes involuntary attention. Intellectual, aesthetic and moral feelings are of great importance for the emergence of involuntary attention. An object that has caused a person’s surprise, admiration, delight, attracts his attention for a long time.

Interest, as a direct interest in something that is happening and as a selective attitude towards the world, is usually associated with feelings and is one of the most important reasons for long-term involuntary attention to objects

Voluntary attention (active, volitional) is a consciously regulated concentration on an object. A person focuses not on what is interesting or pleasant for him, but on what he should do. This type of attention is closely related to will. By voluntarily focusing on an object, a person makes a volitional effort, which maintains attention throughout the entire process of activity; the volitional effort is experienced as tension, the mobilization of forces to solve the task at hand. Voluntary attention occurs when a person sets a goal for an activity, the implementation of which requires concentration. Voluntary attention owes its origin to work. An important condition for maintaining voluntary attention is the mental state of a person. A tired person finds it very difficult to concentrate. Emotional arousal caused by extraneous causes significantly weakens voluntary attention.

Attention has certain parameters and characteristics, which in many ways are a characteristic of human abilities and capabilities. Basic properties of attention: volume, focus (concentration), distribution, stability, fluctuation, switchability.

The volume of attention is measured by the number of objects that are perceived simultaneously. The amount of attention depends not only on genetic factors and the capabilities of a person’s short-term memory, but also on professional skills, life experience, on the goal, and on the characteristics of perceived objects. Objects that are united in meaning are perceived in greater numbers than those that are not united. An adult's attention span is 4-6 objects, while a child's attention span is no more than 2-3.

Concentration of attention is the degree of concentration of consciousness on an object (objects). Concentration of attention means that a temporary focus of all human psychological activity is formed. The smaller the circle of objects of attention, the smaller the area of the perceived shape, the more concentrated the attention. Concentration of attention ensures an in-depth study of cognizable objects and phenomena, brings clarity to a person’s ideas about a particular object, its purpose, design, form.

Distribution of attention is expressed in the ability to simultaneously perform several actions or observe several processes and objects. From a physiological point of view, the distribution of attention is explained by the fact that if there is optimal excitability in the cerebral cortex, in some of its areas there is only partial inhibition, as a result of which these areas are able to control simultaneously performed actions. Thus, the better a person has mastered actions, the easier it is for him to perform them simultaneously.

Sustainability of attention does not mean the concentration of consciousness throughout the entire time on a specific object or its separate part, side; stability is understood as the general focus of attention in the process of activity. Determined by the type of nervous system, temperament, motivation. Interest has a significant influence on the stability of attention. A necessary condition for stability of attention is the variety of impressions or actions performed. The perception of objects that are monotonous in shape, color, size, and monotonous actions reduce the stability of attention.

The opposite property of stability is distractibility . The physiological explanation for distractibility is either external inhibition caused by extraneous stimuli or prolonged exposure to the same stimulus. Distractibility is expressed as fluctuations in attention, which are periodic weakening of attention to a specific object or activity.

Fluctuations in attention are observed even during very concentrated and intense work, which is explained by the continuous change of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex. Even frequent fluctuations in attention in short periods of time (1-5 seconds) do not noticeably affect its stability, provided that the work is interesting and intense. However, after 15-20 minutes, fluctuations in attention can lead to involuntary distraction from the object.

Switching attention consists of restructuring attention, transferring it from one object to another. A distinction is made between intentional (voluntary) and unintentional (involuntary) switching of attention. Deliberate switching of attention occurs when the nature of activity changes, when new tasks are set in the context of the use of new methods of action. Intentional switching of attention occurs with the participation of a person’s volitional efforts. Unintentional switching of attention usually occurs easily, without much tension or volitional effort.

Theories of attention.

Ribot - Attention is associated with emotions and is caused by them, the state of attention is accompanied by a change in the physical and physiological state of the body. A physiological state is a complex of vascular, respiratory, and motor reactions. Intellectual - increased blood circulation in the organs of the body involved in thinking. The state of concentrated attention is accompanied by the movement of all parts of the body, a necessary condition for maintaining attention at the proper level. Uznadze - the attitude is associated with attention. The concept of objectification is connected with the concept of attitude; it is interpreted as the selection, under the influence of an attitude, of a certain image obtained during the perception of the surrounding reality. Galperin:

Attention is a psychological action aimed at the content of an image, thought, or other phenomenon currently present in the human psyche.
The function of attention is to control this content.
As an independent act, when the action becomes not only mental, but also abbreviated.
Voluntary attention is systematically carried out attention, i.e. a form of control carried out according to a predetermined plan.
All known acts of attention that perform the function of control, both voluntary and not, are the result of the formation of new mental actions.

D. Broadbent - If a person is busy with two things at the same time, presumably a filter, which has a certain bandwidth and recognition device, will switch from one channel of the sensory register to another, and will still miss as much information as this channel can pass. Broadbent was able to explain the filtering of information, but could not explain how information that does not attract attention is still perceived.

A. Treisman added: between the sensory register and the filter with limited bandwidth there is an attenuation device, where the signal is attenuated and its semantic analysis (analysis of language, primarily words) occurs.

F. Deutsch and D. Deutsch. - All stimuli are processed in working memory, the active store of information, which suggests that selection occurs later in the information processing stage. The capacity of working memory is limited; it turns out that only part of the information is stored there. The importance of this information is then assessed, i.e. Working memory is responsible for this.

According to D. Kahneman, he believed that it is not important where the bottleneck is located, but what happens during the task. A person can perform several tasks simultaneously, but the working conditions must be ideal, and if one of the tasks requires a lot of concentration , then the remaining tasks will not be completed so successfully.

Kahneman made the assumption that there is a resource allocator who controls the process of allocating our capabilities. At certain stages, attentional resources are used to process stimuli. These resources change, reaching their maximum at moments of highest arousal. Much depends on incoming stimuli, and the management of resources is influenced by a stable predisposition (switching attention to loud sounds, bright flashes of your name ...) and short-term intentions (situational predisposition).

Anderson looked at attentional inertia (the tendency to process information from a primary source increases with the time spent focusing on it) while studying children watching television. Moreover, the longer they watched TV, the less likely they were to be distracted from this process by other sources of information.

In this case, the short-term intention is watching a TV show, which affects the distribution of attentional resources, while there are practically no resources for a stable predisposition. When an interesting film is on TV, my kettle often boils over and, if not for advertising, then, obviously, it could have burned out.

The model of attention with limited capabilities has the following properties:

Information from different stimuli competes and interferes with each other. We can do two things at the same time until we reach the limits of processing capabilities.
The results of performing any of the tasks will deteriorate if we exceed the available capabilities when processing information.
Resources are distributed flexibly, and stimuli can change this distribution.

Features: briefly

What are the features of attention as a mental and cognitive process and phenomenon, as the highest mental function?

All mental processes are divided into 3 classes: properties, states and processes.

Attention refers to such mental phenomena as cognitive processes. Its most important feature is focus and selectivity .

The difference between attention and other cognitive processes (memory, perception, thinking) is that it does not have its own content. It manifests itself within these processes, characterizes their dynamics, regulating and controlling human activity.

Distribution of attention

Definition

Distribution of attention is a person’s ability to simultaneously perform several types of activities.

Of course, the classic example of such ability is Julius Caesar. Tradition says that he could do seven unrelated things at the same time. It is also known that Napoleon could simultaneously dictate seven important diplomatic documents to his secretaries.

Practice, however, shows that a person can perform only one type of conscious mental activity. The subjective feeling of doing several things at the same time arises because a person quickly and consistently switches from one type of activity to another. As W. Wundt proved, a person cannot simultaneously concentrate on two presented stimuli. However, sometimes a person is actually able to perform two types of activities, but, in this case, one of the types should be completely automated and not require attention. If this condition is not met, combining activities is impossible. The distribution of attention, as a number of authors believe, is the reverse side of another property - switchability.

Basic attention disorders and their causes

Narrowing of consciousness: low attention span, low distribution of attention. Occurs with organic brain lesions.
Pathological distractibility: impaired concentration and stability of attention. It occurs not only in organic, but also in mental illnesses (for example, manic-depressive psychosis in the manic stage).
Viscosity of attention: excessive inertia. A person cannot switch, he gets stuck in the problem. Pathological inertia is a consequence of pathological diseases (for example, epilepsy).

Causes and factors of involuntary attention

External, determined by the characteristics of the stimuli acting on a person;
Magnitude;
Relative novelty (any change in a familiar stimulus);
Duration (inverse ratio);
Movement, especially starting and stopping it.
Internal, determined by the characteristics of the person himself.
Human experience;
Emotions and feelings (attention is drawn to emotiogenic factors);
The human condition.
The significance of the stimulus is the correspondence of the external characteristics of the stimulus to the internal needs of a person.

Attention management

Attention management is the control over distractions that prevent you from concentrating on your main activity.

Requires recognition of the moments of the appearance of such stimuli, as well as the ability to purposefully focus attention as much as possible when performing any specific tasks.

The ability to manage one’s attention well allows a person to greatly increase the productivity of his work. The development of this ability leads to a qualitative change in the results of all his activities .

Psychological properties

Attention is a type of mental activity that reflects a specific object and whose task is to protect the brain from unnecessary information by selecting only useful and relevant information. Concentration is a fortunate acquisition during human evolution. Its interpretation to this day among psychologists is ambiguous, and the lack of unity of opinions forms the essence of the process itself.

Attention and its psychological properties have been studied in detail in medical practice, and recommendations have been developed for correcting deviations in these properties. This phenomenon refers to an end-to-end process that accompanies other types of activity: memory, emotions, thinking. At the same time, characteristic features are identified that indicate a high level of independence of this mental state.

Diagnosis of attention

There are many psychodiagnostic techniques aimed at identifying the characteristics of attention. Examples:

Black-red tables : diagnoses the volume, distribution and switchability of attention. The subject is presented with a table that shows several rows of randomly scattered red and black numbers from 1 to 25. The test consists of three samples: two simple and one complex. Each test task must be completed at the fastest possible pace. The first simple test is to find numbers from 1 to 25 in ascending order. The second simple test is to find the numbers from 25 to 1 in descending order. The third complex test consists of alternating a series of numbers in ascending and descending order: 1-25; 2-24, etc. The time required to complete each trial and the number of errors are estimated.
Munsterberg technique : diagnoses the level of concentration and stability of attention. The test consists of alphabetic text without spaces, in which randomly arranged letters contain words. In 2 minutes you need to find and indicate these words. The number of highlighted words and the number of errors are assessed. Errors are considered missing and incorrectly highlighted words.

General characteristics of attention

Attention is the direction and concentration of consciousness, which involves an increase in the level of sensory, intellectual or motor activity of the individual [1].

The criteria for attention are:

1) external reactions:

motor (head turns, eye fixation, facial expressions, posture of concentration);
vegetative (breath holding, vegetative components of the orienting reaction);

2) focus on performing specific activities and control;

3) increase in productivity (attentive action is more effective compared to “inattentive”);

4) selectivity (selectivity) of information;

5) clarity and distinctness of the contents of consciousness located in the field of consciousness.

Thanks to attention, a person selects the necessary information, ensures the selectivity of various programs of his activity, and maintains proper control over his behavior (Fig. 1).

Basic functions of attention

Activation of necessary and inhibition of currently unnecessary psychological and physiological processes

Promoting organized and targeted selection of information entering the body in accordance with its current needs

Ensuring selective and long-term concentration of mental activity on the same object or type of activity

Rice. 1. Functions of attention

Attention accompanies any activity as a component of various mental (perception, memory, thinking) and motor processes. Attention is determined by:

accuracy and detail of perception (attention is a kind of amplifier that allows you to distinguish the details of the image);
strength and selectivity of memory (attention acts as a factor contributing to the retention of necessary information in short-term and operative memory);
direction and productivity of thinking (attention acts as a mandatory factor in correctly understanding and solving a problem).

Unlike cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, etc.), attention does not have its own special content; it appears as if within these processes and is inseparable from them.

In the system of interpersonal relations, attention contributes to better mutual understanding, adaptation of people to each other, prevention and timely resolution of interpersonal conflicts. Attention, on the one hand, is a complex cognitive process, on the other, a mental state, as a result of which activity improves. Attention is generated by activity and accompanies it; behind it there are always interests, attitudes, needs, and personality orientation. In the context of the professional activity of a lawyer (investigator, prosecutor, lawyer, judge), the importance of attention is especially great.