Skepticism in philosophy: concept and basic ideas

One of the most important sections of philosophy is epistemology - a discipline that studies knowledge, its methods, capabilities and theoretical limits. There is such a direction in it as epistemological pessimism - the concept according to which human cognitive capabilities are limited and will never allow us to fully understand the true nature of reality.

The pessimistic approach includes 2 branches:

Agnosticism. Within the framework of this concept, the world is considered unknowable to humans. In other words, there will always be questions to which reliable answers cannot be obtained using the means and methods at our disposal.
Skepticism. This concept questions the very possibility of a reliable understanding of how correct our ideas about the world and the objects in it are.

Today we will talk in detail about skepticism, consider its main ideas, list its most famous supporters, find out why it is criticized, and examine how it differs from agnosticism.

What is skepticism?

In simple terms, skepticism is a direction in philosophy that considers doubt to be the main principle of thinking. In particular, skepticism questions the reliability of truth (that is, it denies the ability to confidently assert that the knowledge we have about the world around us corresponds to objective reality).

Skepticism arose in the 4th century BC. Its founder is considered to be the ancient Greek philosopher Pyrrho (approximately 360-275 BC), whose ideas were later developed by Sextus Empiricus (years of life unknown, approximately 2nd-3rd centuries AD).

An interesting feature of skepticism is its tolerance towards any religious and philosophical concepts and views. Supporters of this direction proceed from the fact that no statement can claim to be the only and unshakable truth. At the same time, it is impossible to both affirm something with absolute certainty and deny it.

Models of interaction between a skeptic and others

The characteristics of a skeptic are reflected in the nature of his relationships with other people. It is often referred to as an environmental nuisance. The tendency to criticize and doubt regularly causes negative reactions from others and leads to loneliness. Against this background, skepticism is accompanied by the development of arrogance and increased self-esteem.

It is difficult for a skeptic to rely on the opinions of other people. He rarely accepts authority without a compelling reason that he can verify personally. He doesn't compromise. However, if a person gains respect in his eyes for good reasons, he shows loyalty and devotion. Building a lasting romantic relationship with a true skeptic is quite problematic. Such a phenomenon as love at first sight can be immediately forgotten. A doubter will repeatedly check and double-check every step and gesture of a potential partner. It is unlikely that he will be able to completely open up and trust another person.

Basic ideas of skepticism

The main ideas of skepticism include the following theses:

even if knowledge looks achievable and reliable, it cannot be recognized as such;
both absolute knowledge and any reliable knowledge in general are inaccessible to man (since it was obtained through empirical knowledge, which cannot be considered an absolutely reliable source);
a person does not have access to reliable knowledge about any metaphysical phenomena and objects (God, the world, causality, etc.);
any hypothesis needs to be tested, and no test can be considered sufficient or final;
none of the methods of scientific knowledge can provide reliable knowledge about objective reality;
all knowledge available to mankind is only assumptions and hypotheses that cannot be proven;
the philosopher must refrain from making any final judgments.

Skepticism considers all our knowledge relative and requires its critical rethinking. In this sense, it is opposed to dogmatism - an uncritical way of thinking that is based on dogma. Despite the fact that dogmatism is characteristic primarily of religions, ancient skeptics called all philosophers who put forward and defended any statements as dogmatists.

Everyday concept

In everyday life, we often use the words “skeptic” and “sceptical” to talk about a person who is not inclined to take other people’s word for it, in other words, about a person who cannot be convinced of something without providing confirmation and evidence.

Children's knowledge of the world is partly based on skepticism - they cannot take everyone's word for it, because they need to be convinced in practice that the water is wet, the snow is cold, the fire burns, and if you walk without a hat in cold weather, you can catch a cold.

The so-called “ healthy skepticism ” is the basis for safe interaction with the outside world. Common doubt can protect a person from scammers, rash actions, excessive trust, and so on: before giving your consent to participate in any enterprise, it would be reasonable to ask for evidence that what you are undertaking will not harm anyone. On the one hand, this approach can slow down progress, but on the other hand, it works to ensure the reliability of the result.

Skepticism also refers to the principle that causes people to refrain from making categorical statements, as well as the general state of uncertainty or doubt about something. This concept may even be confused with pessimism - after all, it is pessimists who are not ready to blindly believe in a good outcome of any undertaking.

Pyrrho's skepticism

The creator of this philosophical movement is considered to be the ancient Greek philosopher Pyrrho (approximately 360-275 BC). He is notable for the fact that, on principle, he did not write books or treatises, so his ideas were preserved only thanks to his students and followers. In particular, his ideas were developed by such thinkers as Aenesidemus, Agrippa and Sextus Empiricus.

Ancient skeptics identified the teachings of Pyrrho and skepticism, and in their works the words “skeptical” and “Pyrrhonian” were often used as synonyms. In some cases this created confusion, since not all of Pyrrho's ideas were associated exclusively with skepticism.

Today we have an idea of ancient skepticism mainly thanks to the works of Sextus Empiricus. He described in detail the ideas of Pyrrho, Timon, Carneades, Aenesidemus and other supporters of this teaching.

Pyrrho believed that a philosopher is a person striving for happiness, the achievement of which requires calm calm, the absence of all anxiety and suffering. To achieve this state, you need to find answers to 3 questions:

What are things and what properties do they have?
How should we treat them?
What will such an attitude give us?

Pyrrho himself believed that attempts to find reliable answers to these questions would never be successful, and therefore could not lead to happiness. Therefore, he suggested answering them as follows:

We can't know this.
We must refrain from judging things.
By intentionally suspending judgment, you can avoid anxiety.

Thus, he believed that philosophical happiness could be achieved by denying the very possibility of knowledge and understanding of the nature of things. The state of peace that arises due to the renunciation of knowledge was positioned by Pyrrho as the highest degree of bliss and called “ataraxia.” He himself, and after him other skeptics, condemned the desire for reliable knowledge, considering it a source of anxiety and suffering.

Portrait of skeptics

A skeptic always stands out in a company or group of people. Therefore, we can highlight those features that correspond to the image (portrait) of a skeptic:

This personality is characterized by weak emotionality. A skeptic does not give in to emotions, is able to suppress them, and conduct cold analysis;
A skeptical person can almost always be seen with a collected and serious face, and a smile is very rare;
Outside the sphere of understanding of such a person are extraterrestrial forces and supernatural events, representatives of other planets;
Such a person cannot calmly accept religious beliefs;
Finding himself in an extreme situation, such a person will be in a stupor, because in order to make a decision, it is necessary to conduct a deep analysis, and there is no time for this;
The traits of a skeptic left a direct imprint on his relationships with people. At work he is considered a nerd. His willingness to criticize everyone around him and question everything causes a negative reaction from his colleagues. This leads to loneliness for the skeptic;
An arrogant, inflated sense of self-worth may develop;
A skeptical person will not rely on other people's opinions and will not compromise;
Building a romantic relationship with a pronounced skeptic is very problematic. A person who doubts everything will repeatedly check every action of a potential partner. It will be extremely difficult for a skeptic to trust someone and open up.

The positive qualities of such a character include:

Inability to manipulate such a person, techniques of suggestion are ineffective against him

The need for evidence allows them to develop the nature of the discovery

Such people strive for precision and diligence.

A skeptic will almost never become a victim of scammers; he can easily expose any deception

They do not commit impulsive actions and are free from rash decisions.

Such a person will never follow the crowd, so as not to deviate from the mainstream; he can go against established opinion

Skepticism of Sextus Empiricus

Sextus Empiricus is an ancient Greek physician and philosopher who lived in the 2nd-3rd centuries AD (there is no reliable data on his place of birth and years of life). This is the most famous of Pyrrho's followers, famous, in particular, for the book "Pyrrho's Propositions", which today remains an important work for people studying philosophy.

In his works, he outlined the methodology of skeptical doubt, which was based on a critical understanding of the accumulated knowledge in the field of philosophy and other natural sciences of that time. In addition, Sextus Empiricus touched upon the question of the existence of gods. Comparing religion with atheism, he came to the conclusion that neutral skepticism was the most reasonable position.

It is worth noting that atheism, like any religion, contradicts the basic idea of skepticism (nothing can be proven or disproved unambiguously). But the Soviet philosopher Veniamin Boguslavsky, studying the works of the Empiricist, noted that he was clearly inclined towards atheism, since he criticized religious views twice as often as atheistic ones.

In his works, Sextus Empiricus shows that skepticism is an independent direction in philosophy and cannot be confused with others. The reason is that any other direction recognizes some entities and denies others. Skepticism simultaneously admits and questions all entities.

Is it good or bad to be a skeptic?

The main question of this topic is: is it good to be a skeptic? Definitely better than a naive simpleton. Perhaps constant doubts periodically complicate life, but they protect a person from rash actions.

Pros of being a skeptic

The critical thinking of a skeptic gives him certain advantages. It is almost impossible to manipulate him, it is impossible to impose wrong views on him. Skeptics almost never become victims of scammers; they do not trust advertising and quickly detect poorly disguised scams and deceptions. They are constantly in search of the truth and are willing to spend enormous effort to find it. These qualities often help them succeed in life.

A skeptic thinks logically, trying to subordinate every action to common sense, so he is not alien to impulsive actions and decisions. He does not strive to “be like everyone else” and does not follow trends. He is a skeptic who usually swims alone against the tide, resisting established stereotypes and trying to open the eyes of others. The ability to deeply analyze information makes skeptics excellent auditors, inspectors, investigators, lawyers and, of course, scientists.

Cons of being a skeptic

The most problematic area for skeptics is human relationships. They are suspicious and distrustful and do not hesitate to openly express their doubts. Their pettiness often irritates their interlocutors. When they encounter a questionable statement, they ask, “Where did you read that? Such questions cause a negative reaction because people are not ready to answer them and perceive them as a sign of mistrust.

The skeptic himself understands perfectly well that his meticulousness spoils his relationships with people, but he cannot do anything about it. He is also aware of his slowness in making important decisions and sometimes envies impulsive people who do not have time to think. Skepticism is useful when making long-term plans for the future, but interferes with making urgent decisions.

History of the development of skepticism

As noted above, skepticism originated in Ancient Greece and Pyrrho is considered its founder. Later, his ideas were developed by such thinkers as Heraclitus, Aenesidemus, Agrippa, Sextus Empiricus and other famous ancient philosophers. Socrates, in particular, agreed with many ideas of skepticism, although he was not a skeptic.

The reason for the emergence of skepticism was that ancient philosophers were faced with the problem of subjective knowledge , which depended on individual characteristics of perception. At the same time, there were a large number of philosophical movements based on conflicting ideas and theories. Along with this, there was a religion that excluded doubts and offered to accept unfounded dogmas on faith.

All these contradictions led thinkers to the problem of circular proof, which can be expressed in three theses:

Any statement is based on other statements.
None of the statements can be considered irrefutable.
The choice of starting point for constructing a logical proof also requires justification.

These three theses represent a vicious circle that casts doubt on whether the truth can be established at all. Thus, ancient thinkers had two options: either to completely exclude the possibility of accumulating reliable knowledge, or to soften the requirements for truth. They believed that the most reasonable approach would be to adopt skepticism as a criterion of rationality, guided by which optimal decisions can be made.

By the way, the problem of circular proof has not disappeared anywhere and continues to exist in modern philosophy, being its constant and integral element.

Taking this approach, ancient skeptics proposed observing laws, taking care of one's own health and enjoying life, satisfying one's physical needs and desire for knowledge. This approach turned out to be especially useful for the development of ancient medicine, which thanks to it acquired the first features of evidence-based science. It is worth noting that similar approaches then appeared in India, China and the Middle East.

The Middle Ages were not a particularly favorable period for skepticism. All of Europe was under the strong influence of religion, and therefore unquestioning faith in the truth of church dogmas was welcomed, and any doubts were prohibited. The ideas of skeptics were again in demand during the Renaissance, when the authority of religion was replaced by the authority of knowledge and reason. Skepticism has again become one of the main driving forces in the development of science.

In modern philosophy, the concept of skepticism was revised. Now it was seen as a direction that significantly expanded the possibilities of knowledge and could eliminate any existing contradictions. The main representatives of modern skepticism were Francisco Sanchez, Michel de Montaigne and David Hume.

How to communicate with a skeptic?

If we understand who the skeptic is, then establishing contact with him is not difficult. Let's remember that a skeptic is always interested in an interlocutor who is ready to argue and defend his point of view with the help of arguments and facts. He loves clear arguments and justifications that do not raise doubts. Before you propose to him, think carefully about the pitfalls.

Having a skeptic on your team is always helpful. He calculates all possible scenarios, so it is much more difficult to get into trouble with him. The romantics and idealists in your team may feel offended by how harshly he speaks of them. However, this is a rational approach to avoid unfavorable developments.

Criticism of skepticism

Historically, the main opponents and critics of skepticism have always been the Stoics. Skeptics pointed out to all scientists that their knowledge is subjective and cannot be proven in any way. Their main argument in the debate was the statement “Knowledge requires confidence, and your teaching cannot give such confidence.”

The Stoics used this thesis, finding a logical contradiction in it. They asked: “If all knowledge requires certainty, then how can you yourself know and claim it ?” This question points to a real logical contradiction, allowing skepticism to be criticized even now.

Skepticism is also blamed for the fact that thanks to it, Christianity spread throughout the world and became the dominant religion. The fact is that it was the skeptics who were the first to widely criticize the polytheistic religions that dominated the world during Antiquity. They made people doubt their faith in the ancient gods, but offered nothing in return, and Christianity appeared at just the right moment to fill the vacated niche.

Skeptic: types

Each skeptic has a set of similar traits, he also has a certain worldview, but, nevertheless, such individuals can be divided into three groups. We would like to separate each type separately and describe the key points of their behavior and vision of the world around them.

Cynical people

A cynical person is a personality type called a skeptic. This person does not believe that people do things for selfless reasons. Cynicism develops in adulthood as a reaction to the situations we encounter. A skeptic has a different opinion and is characterized by mistrust and a search for ulterior motives. Children are never cynical.

Nihilism

Nihilism is another extreme form of skepticism. It is an approach to life that denies everything the skeptic knows or learns. Adherents of this type of thinking reject all truths, even proven ones. They don't form their own opinions because they don't trust everything. Nihilism is destructive because it implies a negative attitude towards all aspects of social life.

Scientific skepticism

Scientific skepticism is the most productive type. This is what all science is based on. This type is characterized by the denial of everything that is not confirmed by experience. Such a skeptic is a good scientist. Believe me, society needs such people, but communicating with them is very difficult.

Depending on personality characteristics, there are three main types of skeptics:

How is skepticism different from agnosticism?

Essentially, agnosticism arose from skepticism, so there is much in common between the two schools of thought. And yet they cannot be identified or combined, since there are a number of fundamental differences. Agnosticism assumes that human knowledge is limited, but does not deny the possibility of a reliable understanding of how accurately existing knowledge corresponds to reality.

Skepticism comes from the fact that it is impossible to reliably distinguish reality from fiction. All our knowledge was obtained through unreliable means of sensory cognition, which means it can be unreliable, and there is no way to verify it. If agnosticism considers our cognitive abilities to be limited, then skepticism generally excludes the possibility of assessing with any accuracy the reliability of knowledge obtained empirically.

Skeptical as it is?

In the ordinary sense of the word, to be a skeptic is to doubt something. The philosophical type of skepticism is distinguished by the fact that it allows for the possibility of reliable knowledge. Scientific skepticism is a clear and consistent opposition to theories that have not received experimental confirmation.

Any new information can be perceived in different ways:

with negative distrust (definitely negative);
with a reasonable amount of skepticism;
with unconditional trust (absolutely positive).

However, it is recommended not to go to extremes and take a balanced middle position (this is where skepticism lies).

How to learn critical thinking?

Critical thinking means analyzing information, the ability to distinguish the highest truth from lies, consider all arguments, reason impartially and come out of a situation in your favor. Where to begin?

Recognize problems in your thinking

The starting point for learning is self-reflection. You must learn to observe yourself from the outside, analyze your decisions. You can start by analyzing unpleasant situations that happen regularly: not only describe your thought process, but also identify logic and the role of emotions in decision making.

At the same time, you need to train your memory. Poor memory can distort events beyond recognition and make them seem real. On the other hand, trained memory provides all the necessary material for comparing the information received with your experience.

It is important to consider the barriers to critical thinking. This is a fear of expressing your judgment, a reluctance to think about information. It's a lack of self-confidence, being too quick to criticize your own ideas, or simply being cowardly. It is also a lack of knowledge, a lack of experience.

Apply critical thinking guidance to problem solving

Make it a habit to think about one problem a week. You can use the sample format:

Problem. Make sure it exists.
Situation. Describe the problem from different points of view: chronological, logical, emotional.
Analysis. Think about what really happened, get to the bottom of it.
Brainstorm. Make a list of possible solutions, no matter how risky or unlikely they may be.
Solution. Make an informed decision when choosing what is right for you in your specific case.
Actions. Act strictly according to plan, if only to test critical thinking in action.
Grade. Evaluate the result, your mistakes, the experience gained.

Develop the qualities necessary for critical thinking

Observation is noticing details, collecting information;
Skepticism means questioning any information, even from the most reliable sources;
Objectivity means limiting the influence of emotions where a cool mind is needed;
Curiosity - being interested in the world and people;
Accuracy - judge how accurate the conclusion is or whether there are still weak points;
Analytical thinking - making decisions based on observation, collection and evaluation of evidence;
Empathy - taking into account the human factor;
Openness to new solutions - keep an open mind to alternative interpretations;
Impartiality - consideration of all evidence, points of view, information;
Communication - follow the other person's train of thought.

How to raise a skeptic?

First, you need to answer the question, why raise a skeptic at all? Or, more precisely, why develop skepticism in a person? Of course, it is right to teach children not to trust strangers. But developing cynicism and distrust of everyone and everything is also not an option.

Human socialization is based on interaction with other people. Trust is an important part of this process. Without this, it is impossible to build a normal family, friendship and cooperation. Of course, trusting everyone uncritically is a mistake. But pushing people away with excessive suspicion is also fraught with bad consequences. It is best to raise a child in the spirit of harmony with himself and the world around him, developing in him, in addition to critical thinking skills, the ability to trust people.

Do not think that a skeptic is necessarily a callous and rude person. It all depends on the degree of expression of this quality. Sometimes the ability to doubt helps to avoid fraud and deception. This type of people is less susceptible to external influences and therefore always has their own opinion. On the other hand, excessive doubts interfere with establishing contacts and building relationships, causing everyone to be considered distrustful people. It is better to trust in moderation and not oppress others with your suspicion.