Lecture No. 1. Psychology of communication
Man is unthinkable without people.
Goethe
Target:
Study the topic “Communication”. Expand the meaning of the concept of “communication”; consider types and levels of communication. Introduce students to various means of communication, reveal the techniques of non-verbal communication. Pay special attention to the mechanisms of interpersonal perception and understanding of people in the process of communication. Give an idea of the main phenomena of interpersonal communication; analyze the reasons leading to distortion of information in the process of people’s perception of each other. Develop skills in interpreting nonverbal means in communication. Develop the ability to better perceive and understand other people in the process of communication.
Plan:
1. The concept of communication.
2. Types and levels of communication.
3. Means of communication.
4. Mechanisms and effects of interpersonal perception.
Communication concept.
From the moment of his birth until the end of his life, a person is in the process of constant communication and interaction with other people. Statisticians in some countries have calculated that up to 70% of the time in the lives of most people is occupied by communication processes. In communication, we convey a variety of information to each other; exchange knowledge, opinions, beliefs; declare our goals and interests; We learn practical skills and abilities, as well as moral principles, rules of etiquette and traditions.
However, communication does not always proceed smoothly and successfully. Often we are faced with critical situations: someone did not understand us; we did not understand someone; We spoke to someone too harshly, rudely, although we did not want this. There is no person who has never experienced difficulties in the process of communication in his life. In private life, we have the right to choose those with whom we enjoy communicating, those who appeal to us. However, in the service we are obliged to communicate with those who are there, including people who are unsympathetic to us. In this situation, it is very important to be able to learn how to establish contact, since the success of professional activity depends on this skill. Numerous studies by psychologists have proven that there is a direct connection between the quality of communication and the effectiveness of any activity, i.e. almost everything depends on the ability to contact people
5 pages, 2482 words
Mechanisms of person’s perception by person and mutual understanding in the process of communication
... that is, how your communication partner sees you. Mechanisms of perception of a person by a person and mutual understanding in the process of communication The idea of another person is closely related to the level of one’s own self-awareness. Analysis of awareness...
— Do you think your future professional activity as a nurse (paramedic) somehow depends on your ability to communicate and achieve mutual understanding?
Even Avicenna, the great physician and thinker of the Middle Ages, spoke about three means of helping a sick person - “the knife, the grass and the word,” thereby emphasizing the importance of the human word, and in fact, the psychology of communication in healing from illness. Any activity is possible only if psychological contact and mutual understanding are established between people. However, we must remember that successful communication is achieved not only by knowledge, techniques and technology. The basis of communication is a sincere, friendly attitude towards a person.
Each of us has an idea of what communication is. Our life is built from it, it lies at the basis of human existence, therefore communication has become the object of socio-psychological analysis. There are many definitions of communication in the literature. We will use the most general concept.
Communication is a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, as well as perception, empathy and mutual understanding of each other.
Communication is of great importance in the formation of the human psyche, in the development and establishment of reasonable cultural behavior. Through communication, a person acquires higher cognitive abilities and qualities; through communication, a person turns into a personality (examples - Mowgli children)
Communication is always a two-way process in which all its participants are involved, leading to the mutual connection of people with each other.
The study of the communication process has shown how complex and diverse this phenomenon is. Communication is carried out in the unity of its three functions:
1) Communication function -
manifests itself in the mutual exchange of information between partners in communication, transmission and reception of knowledge, opinions, feelings;
2) Interactive feature -
is to organize interpersonal communication. When participants in communication exchange not only knowledge, ideas, but also actions, experiences, deeds;
3) Perceptual function -
manifests itself through people’s perception, understanding and evaluation of each other.
To better understand what communication is, we need to consider in detail its types, levels, features and obstacles.
The influence of self-esteem
The completeness and nature of the assessment of another person depend on such qualities of the assessor as the degree of his self-confidence and his inherent attitude towards other people. If one of the communication participants is confident that his judgments about the other exactly correspond to reality, then he is usually not interested in receiving feedback. In this case, the impact of the first impression can be decisive.
Most of us have experienced a similar situation more than once when the “invisible man” effect occurs. No matter what you do or say, the other person does not react to your behavior because he has already made his own conclusion about you, which cannot be influenced.
Types and levels of communication.
The following types of communication are distinguished:
A) Intrapersonal communication
. This is a person’s internal dialogue with himself, thinking about problems, various issues, analyzing situations, making plans, etc.
B) Interpersonal communication
. This is communication between two or more people. Includes all the variety of forms and styles of communication.
B) Social communication
. This is communication between a person and a group of people, a team, or a large audience.
— You have observed more than once that in different life situations you face different goals and your different personal qualities are revealed. Depending on the situation, you choose one or another style (level) of communication.
The following levels (styles) of communication are distinguished:
6 pages, 2592 words
Interhemispheric brain asymmetry and its impact on human mental processes
... evidence that, due to the functional asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres, complex human mental processes are also asymmetrically distributed between parts of the brain. “Interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain - ... positive and negative emotions, attention, memory. The human brain performs the highest function - thinking. One of the functions of the human brain is the perception and generation of speech.” [6] From here...
A) Primitive level
At this level of communication, the other person is assessed from the point of view of need or unnecessaryness, usefulness or uselessness. When it is “necessary” or “useful,” they come into contact with the person; when it is “unnecessary,” they do not enter into contact or rudely push him away if he interferes with the achievement of any goal. In this case, the person is actually used as a thing, since after obtaining the desired result, interest in him, as a rule, quickly disappears (when communicating with a patient, this type of communication is unacceptable).
B) Manipulative level.
This level of communication is close to primitive, since it is also aimed at obtaining some benefit from the interlocutor. At the same time, the true goal is hidden from the person in every possible way. In such communication, a wide variety of methods of psychological influence on and control of a person are actively used. For example: flattery, intimidation, showing affection, deception, “showing off”, etc.
This type of communication is also unacceptable during interaction with the patient.
C) Formal role level.
At this level of communication, each participant acts strictly in accordance with his social role and position. It actually does not take into account individual personal qualities, the inner world of a person, his problems, etc. n. This style of communication is permissible only in rare extreme conditions, when the patient needs to provide urgent assistance and there is no opportunity to study his personality.
D) Business (professional) level.
Business communication occurs among people, as a rule, in connection with their participation in a certain joint activity and has the goal of achieving a common result. Therefore, at this level of communication, the individual characteristics of the interlocutor’s personality are taken into account, but the interests of the matter prevail, and even possible differences in views or opinions, as a rule, fade into the background. This style of communication occurs quite often between people.
D) Friendly level.
This level of communication is characterized by maximum openness of people to each other, sincerity, and trust; emotional experience for another person, sympathy for his problems, as well as readiness for mutual support and mutual assistance. This level of communication is acceptable when communicating with colleagues and close friends.
E) Communication at the level of “mask contact”.
This is the level of formal communication in which the interlocutors do not have the need or desire for a deep understanding of the other person, when a set of standard socio-psychological “masks” is used: politeness, compassion, respect, severity, etc. In this case, “mask” means a certain set of gestures, facial expressions, words, and intonations. All this allows a person, firstly, to hide his true attitude towards his interlocutor; secondly, to protect yourself from the unwanted intrusion of others into your inner world, and thirdly, if necessary, to “smooth out rough edges” in relationships between people.
G) Secular level
This level is characterized by superficiality and pointlessness. People exchange phrases, words, signs of attention in strict accordance with generally accepted rules in a given society
Errors
There are many common perceptual errors that have a major impact on impression formation.
most common ones include:
- we fall under the influence of evidence;
- we are influenced by first impressions;
- we perceive the interlocutor through comparison with ourselves and look for similarities;
- we place more emphasis on negative character traits than on positive ones;
- when our interests suffer, we tend to blame people rather than circumstances.
Under the influence of certain effects, false ideas about the interlocutor are formed.
Errors of perception can be an incorrect interpretation of the reasons, motives and incentives of the interlocutor. It may also be a misunderstanding of the meaning of the words he said and the actions he performed.
If the interlocutor put a certain essence into his statement, and the one to whom this statement was intended could not understand this essence, we can talk about a perception error.
In some cases, perceptual errors are not directly tied to the interaction.
For example, based on appearance or stereotypes existing in society, a person may attribute qualities to a person that he does not possess. A person can also ignore some of the interlocutor’s qualities (both good and bad).
Communication means
In communication there are verbal and non-verbal means
communication.
7 pages, 3014 words
Forms of communication between people, expression of their feelings and emotions, ...
... emotions and feelings. 2. Forms of communication between people: Communication between people occurs in various forms, which depend on the level of communication, its nature, and purpose. The most typical forms... marked cultural differences in facial expressions and emotional gestures. Thus, emotions and emotional expressive movements of a person are not rudimentary phenomena of his...
Verbal means are speech (verbal) means of communication. Non-verbal – postures, gestures, facial expressions.
— What role do you think these and other means of communication play?
According to A. Meirabian, in the process of communication, only 7% of information is transmitted through verbal means of communication (words), 38% of information is transmitted through intonation, voice timbre, and 55% of information is transmitted through non-verbal means (gestures, facial expressions, pantomimes).
Learning to understand the language of nonverbal communication is very important.
- Why do you think?
Any of the nonverbal components of communication can help verify the truth of what is said in words and understand what people really think.
However, for the correct interpretation of nonverbal communication, experts recommend following the following rules:
— one should “read” not individual gestures (they, like some words, can have several meanings), but their totality;
- gestures should be interpreted in the context of their manifestations (“arms crossed on the chest”; when communicating, this gesture expresses distrust, closedness; in cold weather a person is simply frozen);
- it is necessary to take into account national characteristics (for example, according to an English psychologist, during an hour-long conversation, a Finn resorts to gestures once, an Italian - 80 times, a Frenchman - 120 times, a Mexican - 180 times)
- when “reading” gestures, you should not attribute your experience and your condition to another person
- So, let's look at some types of nonverbal communication.
The most important means of nonverbal communication is facial expressions
.
Facial expressions are closely related to emotions and allow a person to guess about the feelings of joy, sadness, tension or peace experienced by the interlocutor. Facial expressions help a person convey his mood and attitude towards what he is talking about. Forehead, eyebrows, mouth, eyes, nose, chin - these parts of the face express basic human emotions. This could be: suffering, anger, joy, fear, etc.
Moreover, it is easier to recognize positive emotions. The main cognitive load when recognizing true feelings is borne by the eyebrows and lips (according to other researchers, these are the lips and chin).
Thus, eyebrows shifted towards the bridge of the nose express anger. Raised eyebrows can convey surprise, bewilderment or admiration. Drooping corners of the lips indicate sadness, grief or sadness. Tightly compressed lips indicate resentment.
— What do these drawings have in common?
A universal means of non-verbal communication is a smile.
– Do you think a nurse needs a smile? Why?
The nurse's face should be friendly and open, expressing sincere sympathy. It is a smile that allows you to establish trusting contact with the patient and helps to cope with the negative emotions that the patient experiences. We will talk more about this in the medical psychology course. A smile relieves the wariness of the first minutes, promotes calm, confident communication and creates a positive attitude. A smile means goodwill, the need for approval. Smiling helps you feel more confident and happier. Psychologists recommend that words of greeting and gratitude be accompanied by a smile. (Americans like to repeat: “smile.” However, it must be remembered that the smile should be appropriate to the situation and should not irritate the interlocutor.)
25 pages, 12060 words
016_Man. Its structure. Subtle World
... the contact became conscious. It is with consciousness that a person must touch and touch the Higher Worlds, because unconscious communication with them will not give the necessary consequences... Sleep is a small death How to refine... profitably and extract very interesting and instructive impressions. The main existence (of man) is at night. An ordinary person can live no more than a few days without sleep under normal conditions. ...
The first step towards your interlocutor is a glance
. The look is very eloquent and expresses a wide variety of feelings and states. He can be tough, prickly, kind, joyful, open, hostile, wandering, frozen, etc. The gaze expresses the attitude towards the interlocutor. It has been noticed that if a person is trying to hide some information (or is lying), his eyes meet the eyes of his partner less than one third of the time of the conversation. Making eye contact helps regulate conversation. When a person speaks, he usually looks at the interlocutor less often than when he listens to him. Looking to the side or sideways is perceived as an expression of suspicion and doubt. (Statistics have calculated that in the works of L. N. Tolstoy, 85 shades of eye expression and 97 shades of a smile are described.)
Facial expressions can be consciously controlled in order to “hide” information about the psychological state. Therefore, in communication, it is important to know what information can be obtained by observing a person’s body and his movements. The next means of non-verbal communication is gestures
. In a conversation, we often accompany words with actions in which the hands play the main role, and even a simple handshake carries information about the interlocutor. Thus, a handshake hand presented palm down usually means the partner’s superiority, a hand presented palm up signifies agreement to submit, and a hand presented vertically signifies a partner’s handshake. (Every human gesture is like a word in a language; it is inextricably linked with the train of thought and the movement of feelings.)
The most common types of gestures in communication are:
A) gestures of appreciation
, in which a person evaluates information: scratching the chin, extending the index finger along the cheek, standing up and walking
B) gestures of self-control
: hands are brought behind the back, with one squeezing the other, or when a person sitting on a chair grabs the armrests with their hands
B) gestures of dominance
: Thumb-exposing gestures and sharp downward strokes
D) location gestures
: placing a hand on the chest, indicating honesty, and intermittently touching the interlocutor
Body position is of great importance in the process of communication. Our appearance largely depends on the ability to hold and move. Our manner of standing, walking and sitting is an additional source of information.
For example, when the interlocutor sits slightly leaning forward, he expresses attention and concentration; if he leaned back and crossed his legs, then his appearance “speaks” of disinterest, “switching off” from the conversation.
During communication, you can observe the most “readable” postures:
A) open
, characterizing sincerity and truthfulness: open palms of hands turned towards the interlocutor; legs are not crossed; unbuttoned jacket
B) closed
, or defensive, meaning a reaction to possible threats or conflict situations: crossed arms; sitting astride a chair, with the back of the chair acting as a shield or protection; and also when a person sits on a chair with his legs crossed or crossed
28 pages, 13511 words
Place of communication in the system of human relations
... (expressive) and internal (impressive) sides. The impressive (internal) side of communication reflects the subjective perception of the interaction situation, reaction to real or expected contact. The main thing here... is that the structure of a communication situation is made up of time, place, environment and context of communication, as well as the norms governing communication. The subject of communication is the person who initiates the communication, as well as the one...
B) readiness pose
, characterizing the desire for active actions: hands lie on the hips; the torso is tilted forward, the hands rest on the knees, and the legs rest on the floor so that one leg protrudes slightly forward, leaving the other behind
Another important factor in communication is interpersonal space
– how close or far the interlocutors are in relation to each other:
There are four spatial zones or distances in communication:
1) intimate area
(from 0 to 45 cm).
This distance corresponds to intimate relationships and is typical for relatives, lovers and friends. This zone is the most important and protected by man;
2) personal zone
(from 45 cm to 120 cm).
This distance is used in everyday communication among familiar people (corresponds to informal social and business relationships);
3) social zone
(from 120 cm to 400 cm) This is the distance of official meetings with strangers whom we do not know very well (corresponds to formal and official relationships);
4) public or public area
(from 400 cm to 750 cm) This is communication with a large number of people, with a group, with an audience (for example, it is more convenient for a lecturer to convey information, and for listeners to perceive).
People generally feel comfortable and make a favorable impression when standing or sitting at a distance appropriate for these types of interactions. An excessively close, as well as an excessively distant position has a negative impact on communication.
Mechanisms and effects of interpersonal perception
– Where does communication begin? Of course, “at first sight”, i.e. communication begins with observing the interlocutor, his appearance, voice, and demeanor. Psychologists say in this regard that one person perceives another. Effective communication is impossible without correct perception, assessment and mutual understanding of partners. Now we will talk about what influences our perception of other people, what are the mechanisms of interpersonal perception. Let us analyze how perception effects that arise during communication can cause errors in assessing the person with whom we are communicating.
So, people’s cognition and understanding of others and themselves occurs in accordance with the psychological mechanisms of perception. Let's consider these mechanisms:
1) Identification
is a way of understanding another person through conscious or unconscious likening oneself to another. Identification is the process of almost complete identification of a person with an interlocutor during communication.
(This helps, figuratively speaking, to “get into the shoes” of another person, to feel, understand and experience everything that he feels, understands and experiences).
Examples.
A perception mechanism close to identification is empathy.
This is not a rational understanding of the problems of another person, but the ability to have deep emotional contact and empathy for another person, helping to better understand him and respond to his needs and problems. This perception mechanism is most desirable both in communication with colleagues and in communication with patients.
5 pages, 2041 words
Mechanisms of human perception by humans
... The impressions that arise in this case play an important regulatory role in the process of communication between people. The process of perception by one person (observer) of another (observed) unfolds as follows. In what is observed by the observer... there is one cause. The essence of the covariation principle is that the effect is attributed to the cause that coincides with it in time (naturally, that...
2) Reflection
is a process of logical analysis of the problems, actions and states of the interlocutor, leading to certain generalizations and conclusions about the person. Reflection also means a person’s ability to understand how he is perceived by his communication partner. Examples.
3) Stereotyping
is a way of understanding another person by classifying forms of behavior and interpreting their causes by referring them to already known social patterns. A stereotype is a formed image of a person that we use as a stamp. A stereotype is formed on the basis of a generalization of personal experience and information from books and films. At the same time, knowledge can be not only questionable, but also completely erroneous. Examples.
Meanwhile, the stereotypes formed on the basis of this knowledge are very persistent and popular. So, without hesitation, we talk about the precision of a mathematician, the discipline of a military man. That all businessmen are speculators, and all officials are bureaucrats.
Stereotypical perception is enhanced by good or bad health and mood. So, when you feel unwell, people and events are perceived in a more negative light.
By studying the processes of perception, psychologists have identified typical distortions of ideas about another person. They are called effects.
"Halo effect"
" This effect is manifested in the fact that at the beginning of acquaintance, the general impression of a person leads to an overestimation of unknown qualities: the general favorable impression left by a person leads the subject to positive assessments of those qualities that are not given in perception and therefore not observable. At the same time, a general unfavorable impression gives rise to correspondingly negative evaluations. Thus, the halo prevents one from seeing the actual features and manifestations of the object of perception.
"Projection Effect".
The essence of this effect is that we tend to attribute our advantages to a pleasant interlocutor, and disadvantages to an unpleasant one.
The effect of “primacy and novelty”
(First and Second Order Effect) This effect appears when we are faced with conflicting information about a person. If we are dealing with a stranger, then we tend to trust more the information that came first. When communicating with a person we know well, we tend to give preference to the information that was received most recently.
— Of course, no one can completely avoid mistakes, but we can understand the peculiarities of perception and, knowing about possible distortions, learn to correct our mistakes.
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... the problem of the alphabet of signs that a person uses when identifying iconic objects and objects in general. Decoding - the final phase of the recognition (and perception) process - mainly consists of...
The structure of interpersonal relationships. The importance of human needs in the process of formation...
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Seminar No. 1. Communication in the structure of activities of participants in the educational process
... Babaytseva V.Yu. Personality-oriented training in the process of preparing future teachers for educational work with difficult children. M., 1997. Mudrik A.V. Communication as a factor in education. M.: Pedagogy, ...
Stereotyping
Social stereotypes are the basis for the formation of first impressions, and social stereotyping is the main mechanism of this process. A social stereotype is a stable idea about any phenomena or people, characteristic of representatives of a particular group. Any social stereotype is the product of a certain group of people, and an individual uses it only if he considers himself to be part of this group.
The difficulty lies in the fact that the visible bearer of a particular stereotype is always a specific individual. Therefore, when explaining the origin and function of a stereotype, they often try to proceed from the study of a person’s experience, his knowledge about the subject of the stereotype, i.e. from his individual characteristics. This leads to the incorrect conclusion that social stereotypes are a consequence of limited experience, ignorance, and the fruit of hasty generalizations. However, such explanations contradict not only research data, but also facts known to most people.
Wherever different groups can be distinguished, there are also stereotypes that determine the ideas of these groups about each other, and they can only be adequately used in intergroup relations to quickly navigate the situation and identify people as representatives of different groups. Orientation and determination occur instantly: based on signs of group affiliation, the stereotyping mechanism is triggered and the corresponding social stereotype is updated. To trigger this mechanism, it is completely unimportant what is actually happening, what is the personal experience of the owner of the stereotype; The main thing is not to make a mistake in orientation.
ALSO SEE: The main elements of effective professional speech
Situations of the first meeting relate specifically to the intergroup level of communication. Since the main thing in it is to resolve the issue of the partner’s group affiliation, the most important characteristics of the partner are those that allow him to be classified into some category or group. It is these characteristics that are perceived most accurately. All other traits and characteristics of an individual are simply completed according to certain schemes. If communication is limited for some reason only to the intergroup level, then such a scheme of perception always leads to success.
At the same time, stereotyping presupposes a certain assessment of the properties and qualities of his partner that are unknown to the perceiver, which can lead to inadequate communication in the future, beyond the situation of the first meeting, when accuracy in determining precisely these unobservable psychological qualities is required.
Thus, the perception of another is always simultaneously true and false, correct and incorrect, more accurate in relation to the main characteristics at a given moment and less accurate in relation to others. This is why it takes extra effort to see both the similarities and differences between people.
It is important to note the following. Almost every adult who has sufficient communication experience is quite capable of accurately determining the most significant characteristics of a partner - his socio-demographic and professional background, and psychological traits.
However, this accuracy is high only in neutral circumstances, when all possibilities of interaction, communication, and dependence between people are eliminated and the only task is the accurate and complete perception of the other person. The less neutral the relationship, the more people are interested in each other for one reason or another, the higher the likelihood of mistakes.
Among people who are able to more accurately judge and understand the behavior of others, there are more often those who:
- base their conclusions on observation of behavior rather than on stereotypes;
- less authoritarian personalities;
- more objective about themselves.
Thus, failures and failures in interpersonal communication often occur because, firstly, people perceive each other incorrectly and inaccurately; secondly, they do not understand that their perceptions are inaccurate. Although it would be an illusion to believe that more accurate perception always leads to more successful communication. However, satisfaction with communication in both short-term and long-term relationships largely depends on the degree of adequacy and depth of interpersonal perception.
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