Humanistic psychology - philosophical foundations, methods and representatives

History of formation

In the first half of the last century, many psychological schools appeared. Each of them tried to explain all phenomena within a single system. In the late 1950s, humanistic psychology emerged in the United States, with the help of which specialists tried to build a new methodology for studying humans, rather than continuing to use a scientific mechanistic approach.

Bugental compared this discovery to the collapse of feudalism and the advent of electricity. Many European schools also tried to move to a humanistic approach, although they first started talking about it in the USA. In 1962, the journal “Humanistic Psychology” was published. It has become an independent branch in science. The development of new techniques was accompanied by mass protests and demonstrations in defense of civil rights.

During the 1960s and 1970s, a new type of psychology flourished . And in 1971, Stanley Kripner performed in the USSR. He talked about common principles with Soviet psychology, spoke about the same views on the potential creative capabilities of a person. In Russia at this time, an activity-based approach similar to humanistic issues was developing. New concepts were formed in its wake, but they did not contradict the old ones.

In 1983, a cooperation project between the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences and the AGP was founded. Although several representatives of humanistic psychology died during this period, a delegation came from the United States to exchange scientific experience. Lectures were given in Moscow, Leningrad and Tbilisi.

Essence and basic principles

Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud is the recognized founder of the theory of psychoanalysis and the treatment method of the same name. In 1880, he, together with Dr. Joseph Breuer, observed the effect of hypnosis on hysterical attacks in women. During hypnotic sessions, patients recalled, reacted very emotionally and experienced traumatic events in their lives.

Breuer called this state catharsis. After being brought out of the trance, they had absolutely no memory of what had happened. However, after the session there was complete relief from all symptoms of hysteria and neurosis.

This led Freud to understand that the causes of various mental illnesses and manifestations lie in that part of the personality that is not consciously recognized by the person, i.e. in the unconscious. He began to look for ways to extract this information in order for the patient to consciously experience these events.

He had to work with many patients with hysterical and neurotic disorders of various origins, including syphilitic and organic. In conversations with them, he used a study of the dreams and fantasies of patients, their slips and slips.

So, initially using psychoanalysis as a method of treating patients, Freud, on its basis, by the end of 1890, formed the theory of psychoanalysis. And later he supplemented it with “The Interpretation of Dreams.” Freud later described personality structure and a theory of human behavior.

Psychoanalysis in psychology is a number of basic postulates:

• The structure of the human psyche is similar to an iceberg, where the tip is consciousness, and the huge underwater part is the unconscious. Between them there is a small layer in the form of preconsciousness, which serves for temporary storage of information.
• The unconscious is filled with irrational drives and desires, it is devoid of morality and symbolic. It stores all unresolved conflicts, traumatic events, and all kinds of fears that have been repressed from consciousness. They are not consciously realized by a person, but completely determine his experience, relationships with others and behavior.
• Everything that is socially unacceptable - sexual desires, drives, pleasures - is repressed in the process of human development and life into the area of ​​the unconscious. And from there it continues to influence the manifestations of this person. If a strong contradiction begins between the content of the unconscious and consciousness, then a conflict arises. It can manifest itself in the form of neuroses, hysteria, and depression.
• An attempt to become aware of any elements of the unconscious encounters persistent resistance with the help of various mental mechanisms - projection, denial, sublimation, regression and others. This is how our brain is protected from the influx of very powerful repressed drives. Therefore, contact with a psychoanalyst is necessary for this purpose.
• If defense mechanisms cope with the flows of the unconscious, a person can be creatively gifted in any field of science, culture or art. If there are not enough mechanisms, or this flow is too powerful, various diseases arise - neuroses, depression, anxiety, hysteria.
• The human psyche is controlled by two types of energy. The first is sexual, creative energy - libido. The second is destructive, destructive. Unlike animals, whose behavior is subject to instincts, man is controlled by his past experience, contained in the unconscious. And the tension that arises during conflicts can be reduced by a person using the direct direction of energy (sexual or destructive actions), or through sublimation.
• Genetic approach. All desires, drives and unresolved conflicts in childhood affect all manifestations of the adult personality. Depending on the stage of development (up to 2 years oral, 2-4 fecal and from 4-5 years genital) all unsatisfied desires receive different manifestations in adulthood. They also require awareness and permission to get rid of interfering habits and neuroses.

There are many psychoanalytic methods of influence, but they can be combined into several stages. First, the doctor must obtain as much information as possible about the patient's unconscious. For this purpose, the method of free associations, interpretation of dreams and various erroneous words and actions are used. In some cases, hypnotic influence is also used.

Next, the doctor must identify, overcome and show the patient his methods of psychological defense. And in the finale, he shows the patient significant conflicts, suppressed desires, and allows him to survive traumatic events.

Basic principles

Humanistic psychology is a special direction that differs from other schools. The philosophical basis is important for understanding human nature. There are several founders of this technique. Each theory has its own disadvantages and advantages. But there are the following general principles that unite all models:

• development;
• integrity;
• humanity;
• target determinism;
• activity;
• non-experimental personality research;
• representativeness.

The principle of development means a person’s desire for new goals. Thanks to his innate abilities, he can improve himself. The individual feels the need for self-actualization. Integrity allows us to view a person as an open, complex system working to realize its potential.

According to the principle of humanity, every person is good and free, but character can change due to the surrounding world and circumstances. Determinism allows you to orient a person towards the future, taking into account his goals and expectations. Thanks to non-experimental research, it is possible to study individual fragments of the personality, rather than the entire system as a whole. Representativeness means the coincidence of goals and objects of observation, since the task is implemented on the choice of a healthy person.

Influence of Carl Rogers

Rogers is an American psychologist and one of the founders of the humanistic approach (or client-centered approach) to psychology. Rogers is considered one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research, and was awarded the American Psychological Association (APA) Award for his pioneering research and outstanding scientific contributions in 1956.

The humanistic direction in psychology, which is person-centered, its own unique view of human relationships, has found wide application in various fields such as psychotherapy and counseling (client-centered therapy), education (student-centered learning). For his professional work, he was awarded the Distinguished Professional Achievement Award in Psychology in 1972 by many non-profit organizations. Rogers has been voted the sixth most outstanding psychologist of the 20th century. Rogers' humanistic psychology gave impetus to the development of psychology as a whole.

G. Allport's theory

One of the founders of humanistic psychology is Gordon Allport. He created the theory of personality traits, according to which every person has innate predispositions to react to a given situation in a typical way. His ideas are aimed at highlighting the integrative levels of interaction between the individual and the outside world. These include conditioned reflexes, trait systems, and skills that change in different situations.

Allport described two levels of functioning - higher motives and needs. The latter includes homeostasis or the desire to eliminate tension. And higher motives include the desire for development, resistance to balance, setting new goals and objectives.

Allport argues for the peculiarities of personality development with the principle of functional autonomy of motives . Although a person develops, he maintains a connection between old and new stimuli. This was contrasted with behavioristic psychology, where all higher motives are associated with physical needs.

The scientist considers character traits as units of human analysis. Some of them become secondary in the process of development, others come to the fore. But the center can contain no more than 5-10 different qualities. Allport spoke briefly and clearly about humanistic psychology. It is an exploration of the uniqueness of each person. He describes uniqueness as the merging of different features into a single system.

Allport identified three stages of development:

• children's;
• relative differentiation;
• integrated unity.

The child has not yet subjected himself to self-analysis, so he demands everything or nothing from those around him.

Later, the unity is destroyed, and separate components of motivation appear. And at the last stage they unite again into a special adult structure.

Practical use. Levers and keys

Ideas and knowledge obtained as a result of research in the field of humanistic psychology are reflected, first of all, in psychotherapeutic practice.

Numerous methods of research and analysis of the psyche, developed by A. Maslow, S. Jurard, F. Barron, K. Rogers, are used in practice by scientists from all over the world.

Another way of practical application of theoretical knowledge in humanistic psychology is pedagogy, based on the principles of not directive contact between the teacher and the student, but comradely: one within which the child can show all his creative potential and become a full-fledged, unique personality.

In the socio-psychological training, to which Carl Rogers himself had a hand, humanistic psychology was fully manifested.

Within this direction, it was possible to use the main ideas of the approach and implement the idea of ​​​​improving society through improving individuals and interpersonal relationships in a small group.

Humanistic psychology has become an important part of such fields as psychotherapy, psychology, pedagogy, healthcare, politics, therapy and others. Humanistic psychology became one of the first psychological schools to emerge in the world, which managed to occupy a strong position in psychological science as a whole.

Humanistic psychology became one of the first psychological schools to emerge in the world, which managed to occupy a strong position in psychological science as a whole.

In the modern world, Rogers, Maslow and other leading minds of the movement have many followers, thanks to whom humanistic psychology is finding more and more adherents and developing in different aspects.

Then we say goodbye! Subscribe to our Telegram channel if you are interested in understanding psychology and would like to receive useful content in small portions directly in Messenger.

Self-actualization by A. Maslow

Maslow conducted counseling for mentally mature adults. He called them the growing elite of society. The scientist’s research was influenced by many famous personalities:

• M. Mead;
• A. Adler;
• E. Fromm;
• K. Horney;
• M. Wertheimer;
• K. Goldstein.

His studies were varied: observation of primate behavior, anthropological research, and studies of female sexuality. Maslow preferred to work only with healthy people.

He paid special attention to motivation and considered it as a driving force for development. The need of a person to become someone is an innate quality, but a person does not realize this until he finds himself in suitable conditions. The main condition is the satisfaction of all needs. But if a child was deprived of attention and love in childhood, then in adulthood he will be able to do without them.

Self-actualization has its pros and cons . The positive side is expressed in independence from the surrounding world, and the negative side is that the personality in the process of evolution may lose some qualities. Because of this, mental pathologies develop. Maslow believes that the main characteristic of a healthy person is detachment from the opinions of society. You need to evaluate your behavior yourself, and not relying on the judgments of others.

The scientist explained the role of psychotherapy. There are no limitations to this treatment method, but it is necessary to correct emotions and behavior. The doctor will not be able to restore the qualities lost by the individual in childhood. That is why parents have a serious task, because upbringing has a huge impact on the further development of the child.

Abraham Maslow added a lot of new things not only to the field of psychology. Thanks to him, methods of marketing, management, interpersonal relationships, and criminology were improved.

Inner nature of man

Freud hinted quite clearly that man is at the mercy of unconscious forces that control him. The founder of psychoanalysis also emphasized that if a person does not control unconscious impulses, this will lead to the destruction of other people or himself. It is difficult to judge how fair such a point of view is, but Freud had little faith in the fact that people are driven by a bright beginning.

Personality in humanistic psychology is viewed from a point of view radically opposed to psychoanalysis. Adherents of this direction argue that if a person is not good internally, then at least his nature is neutral.

Of course, this opinion may well be challenged by the person who is attacked by robbers on a dark evening. But Maslow argued that the destructive forces operating in people are a direct result of frustration, the inability to satisfy one's own needs. By nature, everyone has positive opportunities for achieving self-realization. Maslow maintained this positive view of man throughout his life.

Personality congruence according to K. Rogers

K. Rogers considers the individual to be the center of a constantly changing world, which he calls phenomenal. These are not objects and objects, but human emotions and feelings. The body immediately after birth learns to perceive its environment. Over the years, he accumulates experience and habits. A person reacts not to reality, but to his perception of reality.

Rogers was a representative of the phenomenological school. Its main principles:

• independent choice of fate;
• the ability to understand a person only from his point of view;
• The pursuit of excellence.

Since a person makes his own choice, he determines his destiny. But you can understand him only from his position. It is necessary to understand the subjective perception of reality from the point of view of the individual. The third principle says that every person is good by nature. He always subconsciously strives for perfection.

The concept of reality in psychology is separate : it is an individual’s personal perceptions of the world. A person evaluates any experience in his own way. Some satisfy his needs and are therefore remembered as an experience. And others are discarded and are not realized.

Psychotherapy, according to Rogers, should help a person reveal his emotions and potential. He believes that a specialist should support the client through empathy. It is necessary to positively accept the individual and create an optimal atmosphere for him. The consultant must ensure that the client himself understands his problems.

This focus in work will help him rethink the situation and independently find a way out of it.

General characteristics of humanistic psychology

The psychoanalytic movement, which first raised the question of the need to study motivation and personality structure, has enriched psychology with many important discoveries. But this approach ignored the study of such important features as the qualitative uniqueness of each person’s personality, the ability to consciously and purposefully develop certain aspects of the “I-image” and establish relationships with other people. Scientists have also refuted the idea of ​​psychoanalysis that the process of personality development ends in childhood, while experimental materials have shown that personality formation occurs throughout life.

Awareness of these shortcomings of traditional psychological orientations led to the emergence of a new psychological school called humanistic psychology.

Humanism (from the Latin “humanis” - human) is an attitude towards man, his rights and freedoms as the highest value; included in many philosophical and psychological theories and movements. The reason for the existence of this school of thought, as well as the motivation of its adherents to call it humanism, can only be understood in the historical and psychological context of its emergence.

This concept arose in the United States in the mid-1940s, when the general appearance of American psychology (among which the movement gained authority) was determined by the dominance of two currents, sometimes called the “two forces.” Variants of behaviorism and psychoanalysis.

As general psychology, they have also been introduced into various areas of practice, especially psychotherapy. There were loud protests among psychotherapists against the “two forces”, who were justifiably accused of dehumanizing a person, treating him either as a robot (or, in more modern terms, like a small computer) or as a neurotic whose “poor self” was being torn apart torn apart by various complexes - sexual, aggressive, inferiority, etc. (Neither these complexes nor their nature have been criticized. None of these complexes, as the initiators of humanistic psychology claim, allow one to reveal the positive, constructive qualities of an integral human personality, its ineradicable desire for creativity and independent decision-making, choosing one’s destiny. Humanistic Psychology, opposed to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, proclaimed itself the “third force.”

The focus of research interests has shifted to the problems of human experience, which cannot be reduced to general rational schemes and concepts. It was about restoring the authenticity of man (his inauthenticity), about restoring the correspondence of his existence to the true nature of man. However, it has been suggested (under the influence of existentialism) that true nature is revealed in the so-called liminal situation, when a person finds himself between being and non-being. In such conditions, a person is freed from all the conventions that fetter him and comprehends his existentiality. If all previous psychological theories assigned a decisive role to the dependence of the psyche on the past and present, then the humanistic direction shifted the vector of life time towards the future. Freedom of choice and openness to the future are qualities that personality theories should focus on. Only in this case do they help a person get rid of the feeling of being “abandoned in the world” and find the meaning of his existence.

Techniques used

There are several methods in humanistic psychology. Which ones are relevant, each client decides independently. This allows you to reveal a person’s individuality and understand his self-perception. Since the emergence of the new school of psychology, many methods of working with clients have been developed:

• tests;
• visualization;
• art therapy (the most popular today);
• psychodrama;
• Eastern techniques - yoga or meditation;
• existential therapy;
• transactional analysis.

K. Rogers invented another method - non-directive. Its characteristic is to show kindness towards the client . Since kindness is inherent in everyone at the genetic level, it is necessary to bring it out. To do this, you need to create certain conditions during the consultation in which a person can open up.

The session should be conducted in the form of a dialogue so that the individual does not find himself in the position of a student or subordinate. The function of a psychologist in such classes is to encourage open conversation and self-expression.

This way the client will be able to quickly get to know himself and learn to perceive the world around him adequately.

Although the nature of personality cannot be completely determined, a person's behavior and emotions can be studied. Psychology allows you to unlock potential and show an individual that he can make decisions independently and characterize himself.

Background to the emergence of humanistic theories of personality

Humanistic theories of personality became a logical stage in the development of psychology and other sciences, the focus of which was man. For quite a long time in psychology, the dominant position was occupied by theories according to which the essence and behavior of a person is predetermined mainly by biological factors.

Hypotheses and analogies with the animal world of mammals were built on this postulate, experiments and other studies were carried out. From these positions it was possible to study many aspects of a person’s personality, but not all. The task of finding methods of explaining those aspects of personality that are not amenable to experimental study and explanation from the point of view of physiology has become urgent.

Alfred Adler

The first to allow himself to move away from the biological component as the main determinant of human behavior was the Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist Alfred Adler. He identified social interest as the main factor in human development. Adler was also the first to assign a huge role to the creative component in a person’s personality. By the creative “I,” Adler understands a person’s desire to find his uniqueness and create his own life experience.

Accordingly, each person can be considered as a unique individual with his own set of characteristics, views, motives, and values. Adler believed that the foundations of a person’s future lifestyle are laid in early childhood and depend on many factors, including how the child was born in the family and what childhood memories seem most vivid to him in adulthood. Possible human complexes and compensatory mechanisms that begin to work at a conscious age depend on this.

Erich Fromm

A great contribution to the departure from the biologization of human essence in science was made by the German psychologist, sociologist and philosopher Erich Fromm. He identified five social needs that are characteristic of a person and predetermine his development to a greater extent than physiological factors or living conditions.

Social needs of a person according to Fromm:

1. Connection with other people.
2. Transcending.
3. Rootedness.
4. Orientation system.
5. The opportunity to be yourself.

In simple words, this means that a person creates his own relationships with people, strives to rise above animal nature, wants to belong to society, family, group, but at the same time maintain self-identity and have a system of guidelines for how to perceive the world around him, other people and himself. Often needs come into conflict, for example, the need to be oneself and the need to belong to a group, and then the “flight from freedom” begins, to which Fromm devoted an entire book.

Victor Emil Frankl

However, a real breakthrough in the perception of a person as a highly spiritual person, capable of remaining so, despite all obstacles, was made by the Austrian psychologist and neurologist Viktor Emil Frankl. His fate is unique in that he received a terrifying opportunity to test the viability of his scientific views in the conditions of a Nazi concentration camp, where he ended up during the Second World War.

Even before the war, Frankl began working on his own theory of the meaning of life and came to the conclusion that a person is capable of self-actualization even in difficult life circumstances and with limited opportunities in the material world. Frankl explained this by the fact that a person is capable of being transcendental to himself, i.e. find the meaning of life outside of yourself. In addition, a person, if desired, can distance himself from the situation and see himself in it as if from the outside.

The views of Adler, Fromm, Frankl and their followers prepared the basis for humanistic theories of personality, which began to actively develop in the second half of the 20th century. By the way, Viktor Frankl, who continued to engage in science after the war, created his own method of psychotherapy - logotherapy, based on the search for the meaning of life as the basis of mental health.

Prerequisites for formation. From and To

There was primary knowledge. It was not the case here that genetic psychology is a zero-form in Malevich’s terminology. No, it was based on approximately 10 previously established directions:

1. Group dynamics (including T-groups);
2. Doctrine of self-actualization;
3. Personality-centered direction of psychology (Rogers' client-centered therapy, 1961);
4. Reich's theory with his insistence on the release of clamps and the release of the internal energy of the body;
5. Existentialism;
6. Results of using expending drag (LSD);
7. Zen Buddhism;
8. Taoism;
9. Tantra (the body is an important part of the energy system);
10. Summit experiments as revelation and enlightenment.