General psychology is the foundations of psychology as a scientific discipline

The general characteristics of psychology as a science always pay special attention to the structure of this discipline.
Not surprising, because modern psychology is a very ramified science. Differential psychology studies mental differences, age - mental characteristics dictated by age, social - mental traits of representatives of certain social groups... The list of branches can be long. But there are also applied areas - labor psychology, sports, military...

But all this would not have happened without the basis of the foundations, the foundation, the base, the roots of that tree, which then gives life to many branches and twigs - general psychology.

General Psychology: Introduction

Each person has certain personality traits and mental properties. And general psychology studies these properties and qualities. The basic processes of mental states are also studied by science.

The study of human personality is an integral part of fundamental psychology.

General psychology formulates the basic definitions and laws of mental processes and studies methods and techniques of research. General psychology is a theory that serves as the basis for all its branches.

Psychological anthropology

The connection between psychology and anthropology, for example, is established because there is a fundamental branch of psychology - personality psychology.

Psychological anthropology refers to interdisciplinary branches of knowledge. She studies the ethnic characteristics of the people’s psyche, national character, as well as the patterns of formation and functions of national self-awareness.

Psychological anthropology as a term appeared in the 50s of the 20th century in the USA. It was introduced to replace the abstract name “personality and culture” by the Chinese researcher Hsu.

Modern psychological anthropology does not represent a single whole, either in terms of topics or methods. In it, as in other psychological sciences, a number of independent areas can be distinguished:

• Cross-cultural, comparative studies of ethnic characteristics of psychophysiology, cognitive processes, memory, emotions, speech, which form an integral part of the relevant sections of psychology;
• Cultural studies related to the sections of ethnography, folklore, art history, etc.;
• Ethnic consciousness and self-awareness, studied by the relevant sections of social psychology;
• Ethnic characteristics of the socialization of children, conceptual apparatus and methods close to the sociology of education.

In the world over the past few decades, questions of psychological anthropology have become very popular.

History of psychology from antiquity to the present day

In ancient times, the authors of psychological teachings mainly asked questions about the nature of the mind of an individual.

Ancient authors were very interested in the human soul

Most of the work was occupied by the human soul. Aristotle is rightly called the founder of general psychology.

He became famous in this direction thanks to his treatise “On the Soul,” clearly defining the subject of research in psychological science.

Hippocrates classified the types of temperament, while Plato gave his preference to the study of the structural components of personality from philosophical views.

The main distinguishing feature of medieval psychology is the concentration of science on issues of faith and human reason. The philosophy of religion determines the main directions of research.

Aristotle's ideas are relevant in this period of studying psychology. During this period, Thomas Aquinas became famous thanks to his work in Christian philosophy.

In the modern era, the term “psychology” refers to the science of the soul. And only in the works of Otto Kasman the term acquires modern scientific meaning. The 18th century was the century of astronomical calculations, which took control of the study of psychology.

The 19th century is the most important period for psychological science, in particular for its formation. In 1879, under the leadership of Wilhelm Wund, a psychological research laboratory, the first of its kind, opened and began its work. It is from this moment that psychology stands out as a separate and independent science.

The beginning of the 20th century was a time of rapid development of psychoanalysis. The works of Sigmund Freud are popular. Behaviorism is very actively gaining momentum in its development.

Gestalt psychology begins to develop in Germany. The basics of psychodiagnostics appear—tests to test intelligence.

From 1930 to 1940, Gestalt psychology became the basis for social psychology. During this time period, a special interest in practical technologies and ergonomics appears. The works of K. Levin, B. F. Skinner, J. Piaget, and L. S. Vygotsky gained great fame.

In the 1950-1960s, psychology flourished as a science. Various directions began to actively develop. Most psychological research and psychological experiments are conducted.

Psychology: lecture notes

2. The formation of psychology as a science

1. The development of psychology from ancient times to the middle of the 19th century.

2. The formation of psychology as an independent science.

3. Modern psychological concepts.

1. Interest in problems that are classified as psychological arose in man in ancient times.

The philosophers of ancient Greece in their treatises tried to penetrate the secrets of existence and the inner world of man.

Ancient philosophers explained the psyche based on the four elements on which, in their opinion, the world was based: earth, water, fire and air.

The soul, like everything in this world, consisted of these principles.

The ancients believed that the soul is located where there is heat and movement, that is, all nature is endowed with a soul.

Subsequently, the doctrine that spiritualizes the whole world received the name “animism” (from the Latin “anima” - “spirit”, “soul”).

Animism was replaced by a new philosophical doctrine - atomistic.

Aristotle was a prominent representative of this trend.

.
He believed that the world
is a collection of the smallest indivisible particles - atoms, which differ from each other in different mobility and size, and the material carriers of the soul are the smallest and most mobile.

Based on this mobility of atoms, Aristotle explained the mechanisms and laws of functioning of many mental phenomena: thinking, memory, perception, dreaming, etc.

Aristotle's treatise “On the Soul” is considered by many scientists as the first major scientific study in psychology.

According to Aristotle, a person has three souls: vegetable, animal and rational.

The mind depends on the size of the brain, emotions - on the heart.

Democritus was a representative of materialistic views.

. He believed that everything in the world consists of atoms.

Atoms exist in time and space, in which everything moves along a given path. In infinite space, indivisible and impenetrable particles move according to certain laws; the soul is formed by light, spherical particles of fire.

The soul is a fiery principle in the body, and death occurs as a result of the disintegration of the atoms of the soul and body. Both body and soul are mortal.

The merit of Democritus is that he initiated the development of the theory of knowledge, especially visual sensations. He developed recommendations for memorization, dividing the methods of preserving material into material and mental.

It is impossible not to mention the views of Plato

.

According to his views, a person is a prisoner in a cave, and reality is his shadow.

Man has two souls: mortal and immortal.

The mortal solves specific problems, and the immortal, whose life continues after death, is the very core of the psyche, the highest form endowed with reason.

Only the immortal soul gives true knowledge obtained as a result of insight.

There are eternal ideas, and the world is a weak reflection of ideas. In the process of life, the soul remembers those immortal ideas that it encountered before entering the body.

Plato's views regarding the functioning of human memory are interesting.

Memory

- This is a wax tablet. People have different memories and it depends on the quality of the wax.

We retain memories as long as they are preserved on a wax plate.

The doctrine of the soul in the early Middle Ages became part of the theological worldview and was completely transferred to religion, which continued until the 17th century. in the era.

During the Renaissance, all sciences and art began to actively develop again.

Natural sciences, medical sciences, biological sciences, various types of art, one way or another, touched upon the doctrine of the soul.

French, English and other European philosophers of that time, based on the mechanistic picture of the world, began to interpret many manifestations of the psyche from the standpoint of biomechanics and reflex, while addressing the internal manifestations of the psyche, the soul remained outside the scope of their consideration.

However, internal phenomena really existed and required an explanation of their role in human life. As a result, a new philosophical direction began to form - dualism, which argued that there are two independent principles in man: matter and spirit.

The science of that time was unable to explain the relationship and interdependence of these two principles, so it abandoned the study of behavior and focused on the subjective experience of a person (XVII-XVIII centuries).

Such positions were held by R. Descartes

and
J. Locke
.

The psyche was considered only as a manifestation of consciousness, the world of matter was excluded from the subject of psychology.

The main research method was the method of introspection (introspection), and natural scientific methods were considered unacceptable for studying the phenomena of the soul.

Simultaneously with such views, an atomistic understanding of the structure of the world developed. Simple manifestations of the psyche began to be considered as atoms.

This atomistic psychology developed over two centuries, until the end of the 19th century.

Thus, from ancient times until the middle of the 19th century. Psychology developed within the framework of other sciences, most often philosophy, medicine, and biology.

2. In the middle of the 19th century, profound changes occurred in the scientific worldview.

This also concerned the relationship between soul and body, material and mental manifestations.

Advances in medicine, in particular psychiatry, have undoubtedly proven that there is a close connection between brain disorders and mental disorders, which refutes the postulate of dualism about their separate existence.

There is a need to take a fresh look at the role of mental phenomena in human life and behavior.

The mechanistic understanding was good at explaining monotonous movements, but it became inadequate at understanding intelligent behavior.

The provisions of atomistic psychology also did not fit into the new scientific facts and required revision.

Thus, in the second half of the 19th century. psychological science was on the verge of a crisis, due to the following reasons:

1) understanding of mental phenomena has become impossible from the standpoint of exact natural knowledge;

2) the relationship between the mental and the physical defied reasonable explanation;

3) psychologists were unable to explain complex forms of human behavior that go beyond reflexes.

The emerging crisis led to the collapse of dualism and introspection as the only reliable source of obtaining psychological knowledge. In search of overcoming the crisis, three directions of psychological teaching arose: behaviorism, Gestalt psychology and psychoanalysis (Freudianism).

Let's take a closer look at them.

Behaviorism.

Its founder is the American scientist
D. Watson
, who proposed considering behavior (from the English behavior) as a subject of psychology, and considering mental phenomena unknowable using natural scientific methods.

To understand behavior, it is enough to describe the behavior itself, find out and describe the external and internal forces acting on the body, and study the laws according to which the interaction of stimuli and behavior occurs.

Behaviorists believed that the difference between animal behavior and human behavior lies only in the complexity and variety of reactions.

Nevertheless, Watson could not help but recognize the existence of purely human mental phenomena.

He interpreted mental states as functions that play an active role in the organism’s adaptation to the world, while admitting that he was unable to understand the meaning of this role.

Scientists of this direction denied the possibility of studying consciousness.

As Watson wrote, the behaviorist "observes nothing that he can call consciousness, feeling, sensation, imagination, will, to the extent that he no longer believes that these terms indicate genuine phenomena of psychology."

However, already in the 30s. In the 20th century, such extreme views of D. Watson were softened by neobehaviorists, primarily E. Tolman

and
K. Hull
. Thus, E. Tolman introduced the concept of reasonableness and expediency of behavior.

Target

- this is the final result achieved as a result of performing behavioral acts.

The most important psychological phenomena, according to Tolman, are goal, expectation, hypothesis, cognitive picture of the world, sign and its meaning.

K. Hull developed a model of behavior based on reactions to various stimuli.

The body responds to stimuli using innate and acquired ways that are associated with a system of “intermediate variables” that mediate this interaction.

Thus, behaviorism does not study the human mind, believing that psychology should explain behavior by examining the stimuli entering the body and the behavioral responses outgoing.

From this thesis comes the theory of learning, which is based on the use of all kinds of punishments and reinforcements when it is necessary to form appropriate reactions, due to which the theory is still popular, primarily among American psychologists ( B.F. Skinner

).

Gestalt psychology

originated in Germany and spread throughout almost all of Europe, including Russia, especially in the pre-war years.

This direction was influenced by such sciences as physics and mathematics.

Prominent representatives are K. Levin

,
M. Wertheimer ,
W. Köhler et al.

The essence of this direction was formulated by M. Wertheimer, who wrote: “... there are connections in which what happens as a whole is not derived from elements that supposedly exist in the form of separate pieces, then linked together, but, on the contrary, what manifests itself in a separate parts of this whole is determined by the internal structural law of this whole.”

That is, Gestalt psychology studies not phenomena, but the structure of connections, which is why it is sometimes called structural psychology (translated into Russian, the word “Gestalt” means “structure”).

K. Lewin is known for his work in the field of personality and interpersonal relationships.

He believed that the behavior of an individual can only be understood based on the holistic situation in which this individual finds himself.

The environment is determined by the subjective perception of the people operating in it.

The merit of Gestalt psychology is that it found modern approaches to the study of psychological problems, but the problems that caused the crisis were never fully resolved.

Psychoanalysis

was developed by the Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist
S. Freud
,
which is why it is sometimes called “Freudianism”.
Founding a scientific theoretical direction in psychology, Freud proceeded from the analysis of his rich psychotherapeutic practice, thereby, as it were, returning psychology to its original subject: insight into the essence of the human soul.

The fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis are consciousness

and
the unconscious
.

It is the unconscious (the main of which is sexual attraction - libido) that plays a significant role in regulating human activity and behavior.

Censorship from the side of consciousness suppresses unconscious drives, but they “break through” in the form of slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, forgetting unpleasant things, dreams, and neurotic manifestations.

Psychoanalysis has become widespread not only in Europe, but also in the USA, where it is still popular to this day.

In the first years of Soviet power, this direction was also in demand in our country, but in the 30s. Against the general background of restrictions on psychological research (the resolution “On pedological perversions in the Narkompros system”), Freud’s teachings were also subjected to repression.

Up until the 60s. psychoanalysis was studied only from a critical perspective.

Only since the second half of the twentieth century has interest in psychoanalysis increased again, not only in Russia, but throughout the world.

So, none of the newly emerging psychological trends has completely resolved the contradictions that led to the crisis of psychology as a science.

Let's consider some modern psychological concepts that began to actively develop starting from the second half of the twentieth century.

Cognitive psychology arose on the basis of the development of computer science and cybernetics.

Representatives of the cognitive school - J. Piaget , W. Naiser, J. Bruner, R. Atkinson

and etc.

For a cognitive scientist, human cognitive processes are an analogue of a computer.

The main thing is to understand how a person learns about the world around him, and to do this, one should study the methods of forming knowledge, how cognitive processes arise and develop, what is the role of knowledge in human behavior, how this knowledge is organized in memory, how the intellect functions, how words and images are related in human memory and thinking.

The basic concept of cognitive psychology is the concept of “scheme”, which is a plan for collecting and processing information, perceived by the senses and stored in the human head.

The main conclusion reached by representatives of this direction is that in many life situations a person makes decisions mediated by the peculiarities of thinking.

Neo-Freudianism emerged from Freud's psychoanalysis.

Its representatives are A. Adler, K. Jung, K. Horney, E. Fromm

and etc.

What all these views have in common is the recognition of the significance of the unconscious in people’s lives and the desire to explain by this many human complexes.

Thus, A. Adler believed that a person is controlled by an inferiority complex, which he receives from the moment of birth, being a helpless creature.

In an effort to overcome this complex, a person acts intelligently, actively and expediently.

Goals are determined by the person himself, and based on this, cognitive processes, personality traits, and worldview are formed.

K. Jung's concept is also called analytical psychology.

He viewed the human psyche through the prism of macro-processes of culture, through the spiritual history of mankind.

There are two types of the unconscious: personal

and
collective
.

Personal

the unconscious is acquired through the accumulation of life experience,
the collective
is inherited and contains the experience accumulated by humanity.

Jung described the collective unconscious as archetypes that most often appear in myths and fairy tales, primitive forms of thinking, and images passed down from generation to generation.

The personal unconscious is close to a person, it is part of him; the collective is often perceived as something hostile, and therefore causing negative experiences, and sometimes neuroses.

Jung is credited with identifying such personality types as introverts and extroverts.

Introverts tend to find within themselves all the sources of vital energy and the reasons for what is happening, while extroverts find them in the external environment. In further studies, the identification of these two types was confirmed experimentally and became widely used for diagnostic purposes.

According to the personality typology developed by Jung, the following types are distinguished:

1) thinking (intellectual) - creates formulas, schemes, is prone to power, authoritarianism; mostly characteristic of men;

2) sensitive (sentimental, emotional) - responsiveness, the ability to empathize, a more feminine type predominates;

3) sensory - content with sensations, there are no deep experiences, adapts well to the outside world;

4) intuitive - is in a creative search, new ideas come as a result of insight, but they are not always productive and require improvement.

Each of the listed types can be either intro- or extroverted. K. Jung also introduced the concept of individualization, which means the development of a person as an individual, different from the community. This is the ultimate goal of the educational process, but at the initial stages a person must learn the minimum of collective norms that are necessary for his existence.

Another prominent representative of neo-Freudianism is E. Fromm

, who was the founder of humanistic psychoanalysis. E. Fromm believed that the human psyche and behavior are socially determined.

Pathology appears where individual freedom is suppressed. Such pathologies include: masochism, sadism, recluse, conformism, tendency to destruction.

Fromm divides all social systems into those that promote human freedom and those where human freedom is lost.

Genetic psychology. Its founder is the Swiss psychologist J. Piaget

,
who studied the mental development of a child, mainly his intellect, so in part he can be considered as a representative of cognitive psychology.
There are three periods in the process of cognitive development:

1) sensorimotor (from birth to approximately 1.5 years);

2) stage of specific operations (from 1.5–2 to 11–13 years);

3) stage of formal operations (after 11–13 years).

The onset of these stages can be accelerated or slowed down depending on the nature of learning and the influence of the environment.

Training will only be effective when it is started on time and takes into account the existing level.

J. Piaget wrote: “Whenever we prematurely teach a child something that he could discover for himself over time, we thereby deprive him of this, and therefore deprive him of a full understanding of this subject.

Subject of study of general psychology

The subject of general psychology is the laws and mechanisms of the psyche. The development of certain personal qualities is also considered the subject of psychological research.

General psychology studies the laws by which the human psyche works

Psychology developed, and the subject of its study constantly changed depending on what era ruled the worldview of people.

Initially, the soul was the subject of research in general psychology. But in the 18th century the situation changed in favor of human consciousness, or rather its phenomena.

Mental phenomena are what a person observes in relation to himself at the moment.

In the 20th century, due to the rapid development and popularity of such a direction as behaviorism, the subject of study also changed; it became the behavioral characteristics of a person.

But to this day, the subject differs in certain branches of science. The concept of the subject of general psychology includes all aspects of psychological development as a whole.

The mental organization of a person is much more complex than the biological organization. By studying another person, an individual gets the opportunity to know himself as a subject and, on the basis of this study, understand the patterns of his own internal actions.

Subject, structure

General psychology - as its name suggests - is a science that studies the most general patterns of the work of the psyche, unites psychological knowledge, and defines the most important concepts and research methods. Consequently, the subject of general psychology is the psyche, that is, the ability of the brain to reflect the phenomena and events of the external world. Moreover, it must be taken into account that these phenomena are objective, and their reflection, on the contrary, is subjective.

It would seem so simple! The subject of science is denoted extremely briefly, with just one word. However, this simplicity is deceptive. If you fully name what psychology studies, you will need more than one paragraph of text.

The psyche manifests itself in three forms: mental processes, states and properties. They are listed in order of increasing resistance.

• Processes are the most dynamic phenomena of the psyche. They have a beginning, develop and end, and manifest themselves in the form of a reaction.
• Conditions are more stable. This is high or low mental activity at a given moment in time. The state can be sleep or, conversely, wakefulness, as well as hypnosis. Here we also include concentration, absent-mindedness, apathy, inspiration, and so on.
• Properties are stable. This group consists of character, temperament, motivation system, and so on.

Mental processes are usually divided into three spheres: cognitive, emotional and volitional. The first includes, say, sensation, perception, speech. The second, of course, is feelings and experiences. Finally, the third consists of volitional efforts and execution of decisions.

It is interesting that this fundamental division into processes, states and properties of the psyche can be considered not only as a subject, but also as a structure of general psychology. Textbooks in this discipline are also built on this principle. First, the subject and tasks of general psychology are studied, then its history and methods. And then separately - sections. Processes and properties are studied in detail, but independent chapters are rarely devoted to states.

Object of general psychology

The psyche is the object of psychology. This property is characteristic of any highly organized being. Without the psyche, a person or animal will not be able to control their behavior and change it in accordance with the circumstances. The psyche in science is considered the highest form of consciousness of a living being.

Every highly developed creature has a psyche.

Mental assessment parameters:

• activity;
• integrity;
• development;
• self-regulation;
• adaptation;
• communication skills.

Psychology and genetics

Within the framework of the Geneva School, such a direction as genetic psychology was born, the subject of research of which is the development and origin of intelligence, the formation of the concepts of time, space, and object. As an independent science, genetics emerged from biology in 1900, and its creator was the Swiss scientist Jean Piaget.

Studying children's logic, the peculiarities of a child's thinking, and the mechanisms of cognitive activity, genetic psychology is the science of variability and heredity.

The human psyche, if you believe the theory of evolution, tends to change along with society, developing in two forms - during the formation of a child and during the formation of the human race. Fixed in nervous formations, the stages of mental development are inherited, and personality development, depending on the social situation, can be accelerated or suspended. This means that mental development will depend on the environment, on upbringing, on the environment. This is the genetic principle in psychology.

Genetic sources of human psychology and behavior are the most important problem of psychology and pedagogy. It is impossible to directly influence the genetic apparatus through training and education, which means that what is given genetically cannot be educated. But, on the other hand, training and education themselves have enormous potential for the mental development of an individual.

This problem has existed in psychology for a long time. During its development, genetic psychology itself has made many scientific discoveries and found explanations for certain phenomena, although many details are still controversial today.

Methodology of general psychology

Methods of general psychology are techniques that make it possible to obtain specific data. Subsequently, the obtained materials are used for further study and drawing up recommendations that need to be applied in practice.

The techniques of general psychology are varied. The main techniques and means are identified: observation and experiment. Additional: testing, survey, conversation, biographical method. Let's look at each in more detail:

1. Observation is the direct recording of the behavior of the object being observed. This technique is the oldest in the history of psychology as a whole. The main types of observation: field - this is observation without creating any special environment, that is, in a familiar environment; laboratory - observation in artificially created conditions.
2. An experiment implies a special intervention in the life activity of an object to obtain additional research material. The main types of experiment: natural experiment - the experiment is carried out in natural environmental conditions without the intervention of the experimenter; laboratory experiment - carried out in specially created conditions to determine specific data.
3. Testing. With the help of testing, certain qualities of a person are studied. Required when survey and conversation methods do not provide a complete picture of personality traits. Main types of testing: achievement tests are used when it is necessary to assess the level of mastery of certain skills or knowledge; verbal tests are designed to understand whether a person can describe what is happening around him in words; intelligence tests are used to determine a person's level of intelligence; personality tests help to most accurately study personality traits; Vocational orientation tests are carried out to understand whether a person has certain qualities that predispose him to a particular profession.
4. Surveying is one of the most common methods in psychology. Applicable not only to one person, but also to a group of people. The basis is the direct interaction between the subject and the researcher. The main types of surveys: written - provides more superficial knowledge in the area being studied; oral - allows you to explore the psychological characteristics of a person in more detail.
5. Conversation is a method that is used when observation does not provide sufficiently clear and precise data needed for research.
6. Biographical method. This method is used when it is necessary to diagnose a person’s life path for its subsequent correction.

In simpler terms, methods of studying the psyche are ways of studying the surrounding reality.

Psychology and Psychiatry

The connection between them is expressed in the existence of such branches as pathopsychology, psychosomatics, and psychology of abnormal development.

The concepts of human psyche and psychology are inseparable from each other. Problems of a psychological nature leave a person confused about which specialist to turn to, a psychologist or a psychiatrist. A psychiatrist, as a specialist, has more authority to determine whether a person’s behavior complies with the established norms and makes a diagnosis. Adaptation to the natural and social environment is very individual for people, but most cope with this task perfectly. But there are individuals who are poorly prepared for life, so they cannot adequately perceive and solve emerging problems. Such people experience abnormal development and maladaptive behavior. In such cases, the psychiatrist, as a result of the examination, prescribes medications.

To study the characteristics of a person’s psychological make-up, sometimes an examination by a psychiatrist is required; for example, absolute mental health is required for people working with complex mechanisms. Psychiatry studies painful changes in the neuropsychic environment, determines their causes, and develops methods of treatment and prevention. Currently, it is increasingly acquiring the status of a social science. Psychologists and psychiatrists work in the same institutions, but can exist separately, because psychiatry is a more complete and generalized discipline. In other words, psychology is a branch of psychiatry.

Thanks to Freud, psychology and psychiatry merged into a new branch - psychoanalysis. Since the development of physical illnesses is directly affected by mental health, it is worth taking care of this as early as possible.

Structural elements of fundamental psychology

Psychology has its own structure

General psychology contains the following structural elements:

1. Mental processes: perception, memory, thinking, imagination, thinking, speech, emotions, sensations, will, ideas.
2. Mental properties: abilities, character, temperament, motivation.
3. Mental states.

Based on the definitions of general psychology, areas are created that study certain aspects of human life in more detail.

Psychology and speech therapy

Speech therapy belongs to the pedagogical sciences and has a close connection with general and special psychology. Science deals with the study of speech disorders, their overcoming and prevention through special training and education.

Speech, as the most important mental function of a person, creates human ways of social contact between people. Thanks to these contacts, higher forms of cognitive activity and collective work develop. A child who masters speech acquires the ability for conceptual thinking, for a generalized reflection of the reality around him. Deviations in speech development, which is quite obvious, cannot but affect the formation of the child’s entire mental life.

Speech disorders make it difficult to communicate with others and are often an obstacle to the correct formation of cognitive processes, make it difficult to master reading, writing and other school skills and knowledge, and deprive the child of the most important means - self-regulation. As a result, isolation, negativism, and self-doubt appear, aggravating the formation of the psyche.

Those changes in speech that speech therapy examines should be distinguished from the age-related characteristics of its formation. For example, incorrect pronunciation of sounds and a limited vocabulary are normal. A normal, physiological process is taking place and it certainly cannot be confused with pathological deviations in speech development. The schoolchild does not master literacy and spelling immediately and not without difficulties and mistakes. It is important to distinguish these growth difficulties from the abnormal development of writing and speech, where special speech therapy is required.

To study the patterns of special education and upbringing of children with speech impairments, the manifestations and causes of speech impairments, their structure are studied and, in accordance with the data obtained, scientifically based ways to overcome speech impairment are developed.

The most significant branches in psychology

1. Educational psychology is one of the branches of general psychology that studies issues of the educational process and teaching new skills. The main task of this direction is to find techniques and methods for building the most effective educational process through an individual approach.
2. Developmental psychology identifies the stages through which human development occurs and studies the patterns of each stage.
3. Differential psychology studies the characteristics of the psyche of groups and individuals separately, namely: their distinctive features and similarities.
4. Political psychology studies the lives of people involved in politics from a psychological perspective.
5. The psychology of art explores the psychological aspects of the influence of art on humans and society.
6. Labor psychology studies the types of human activities in the labor process as a separate psychological element: determines the necessary personal qualities for a particular activity; explores ways to increase labor productivity, team relationships, issues of professional suitability and motivation.
7. Legal psychology examines the psychological characteristics of the relationship between defendants and law enforcement officials. Also studies illegal activities and ways to prevent them.
8. Practical psychology is one of the largest areas of general psychology, which is built on all major branches and deals with diagnostic issues.

General psychology is a concept that encompasses the foundations for the development of its structural elements, specializing in research in a narrow focus.

Psychology is formed hand in hand with various scientific disciplines. Nature-based research is based on basic biology.

The history of society is closely connected with psychological science. The development of higher mental functions directly depended on tools and activities aimed at their production.

Thanks to sociology, general psychology has more detailed materials for studying man as a biosocial being. General psychology retains an independent subject of its research, despite its close contact with other sciences.

The progenitor of psychology is called philosophy. Philosophical teachings contributed to the emergence of psychological works. In the study of personality, general psychology relied on the conclusions of philosophers about human activity, the nature of consciousness and the specifics of existence.

In this video you will learn about the basics of general psychology:

Why does she

The course “Introduction to General Psychology” is required to be taken by students of all specialties directly or indirectly related to psychological science. After all, it is this fundamental section that provides information without which an in-depth study of any branch of psychology will be impossible, if we are talking about future specialists in a specific branch of science.

What if we are talking about some related specialty that is indirectly related to psychology, for example, social work? In this case, guided by the basic, general knowledge that they received in this course, future social workers will be able to build their relationships with clients much more effectively.

We recommend: What does medical psychology study?

And this will bring double benefits: firstly, specialists will save themselves from unnecessary worries, and secondly, they will delve deeper into the problem of the person who contacted them. Psychology in general is extremely important for those who have chosen professions that involve close communication with people, especially with “difficult” groups that require a special approach (for example, very young children or, conversely, older people, people with developmental disabilities).

“Okay,” one of the readers will say. “Specialists, of course, need to know all this. Why do ordinary people need it?” Ordinary people may not need to delve deeply, but in general, general psychology, at least two or three books on it, will be useful to everyone, regardless of their profession and education. Yes, a specialist and a non-specialist will absorb information in such literature at different levels, but both will be able to learn something valuable for themselves.

Why do people act this way or that way? What does the interlocutor really feel, what is the loved one silent about? What exactly attracts or repels in a certain person? Agree, we ask ourselves these or similar questions almost every day. The answers to them are contained in books on psychology. A little time - and behind all the, at first glance, extremely complex and confusing theory of psychology, an understanding of the way people think and act will gradually emerge.

And maybe, starting with popular or adapted editions, you will be so carried away that Rubinstein’s “Fundamentals of General Psychology” will seem like the most interesting book in the world. Author: Evgenia Bessonova

Basic psychological rules

There are many more examples that could be given. But all these components are united by personal relationships, industrial ones, which have their own canons and psychological rules. Some rules are very simple and familiar to us from childhood. For example, politeness. We hear everything about it from the first years of life, but we don’t use everything and not always. Why is politeness so important?

Psychologists, studying the conflict, found that observers tend to consider a person in the right who managed to maintain self-control, self-esteem, and who is capable of not responding to rudeness with rudeness. Self-respect, self-control, and the ability to avoid personalities and insults are also important for conflict resolution.

If we consider conflict as a struggle of thoughts and opinions, it does not always lead to negative outcomes. Thus, in the business sphere, professional conflicts show interest in a common cause. Conflicts within a team can have a beneficial effect on the development and growth of individuals. The main thing is that this does not take the form of destructive force and hostilities between colleagues.

Of course, all the rules presented do not cover the entire range of issues about mutual understanding and relationships. There are many more exceptions here. These rules will serve those who independently find the logical application of exceptions.

Human psychology concept of personality

Human psychology is an incredibly fascinating subject to study. We all love to watch each other and notice each other's character traits or behavior patterns. Many people really like to pretend to be psychologists - this is also human psychology.

People think that they are different from everyone else, but at the same time they behave the same and fall into the same psychological traps. Human psychology is closely intertwined with physical parameters. Agree, if a person looked different, had a different body, then his psychology would be completely different.

Human psychology is a kind of given, it is something that was originally conceived by someone. But it is intended as a kind of springboard, as something from which to start. Therefore, an integral part of human psychology is developmental psychology - its natural continuation.

Personality is constantly changing, starting from birth and throughout life, and what result it will come to is unknown in advance. Are we using our potential?

Psychology of Personality

Personality psychology is something subject to constant influence, like a banner in the wind, but not always so flexible. If a human being were not so stubborn in his stupidity, ossified in his insanity and clinging to the “familiar,” he would be much happier.

Nothing is permanent - the world around us is constantly changing and a person has everything he needs to be happy, but the whole problem is in the psychology of the individual. Unfortunately, she is often not flexible - hence the stress, the “blows of life.” This is not about the loss of loved ones and real grief. 99% of human stress and problems are far-fetched! It's just a lack of flexibility and the ability to see the positives.

We don’t know ourselves, we don’t know each other, but it is mutual understanding with our own kind that brings us happiness, success, and a sense of satisfaction. How to interact harmoniously in a couple, effectively in a team? Psychology of relationships - we are connected by something more than just society.

Psychology permeates all areas of our lives, our consciousness - everything we touch. Is it possible to use the knowledge of psychology to be happy, successful, creative? Is it possible to create without the “pangs of creativity”? This is the psychology of creativity. Money is the most important element of development and achievement - this is the psychology of business.

Psychologist Alexander Stepanov