There are not many questions in philosophy that are as fundamental and eternal as the question of what comes first - matter or consciousness. This question is one of the main ones in all philosophical science, and it significantly influenced its development and deepening. Thinkers have long been trying to figure out what happened at the very beginning and gave rise to all the diversity of life and the world. In other words, does being determine consciousness or vice versa? Followers of the first point of view are called materialists, and those who hold the opposite views are called idealists.
If the essence of these two philosophical movements is not so difficult to understand, then understanding all their nuances, details and subtypes is much more difficult. Navigating the theories of both idealism and materialism is no easy task, and the abundance of names of representatives of both positions, as well as the variety of terms, can be confusing. In this article, we invite you to try with us to understand the main directions of philosophical science.
Let's look at the essence of both approaches to the question of the primacy of existence, their position and prerequisites, and also get acquainted with their varieties and main representatives. Let us begin, perhaps, with definitions and clarification of the essence of the relationship between matter and consciousness.
What is idealism?
Idealism is a direction in philosophy, according to which consciousness is primary and matter is secondary.
The main feature of idealism is that the existence of physical objects is impossible outside of consciousness, that is, perception is the key factor. According to idealists, it is consciousness that is the unique instrument that allows a person to perceive the world , which means that in its absence the world does not exist. In this regard, the human body must exist as ideal, since only in this case can it become perceptible to the finite person. However, it is important to note here that idealists do not deny the existence of the physical world ; from their point of view, consciousness only endows objects with substantial properties, which, as a result, allows them to be subsumed under the category of matter.
Idealism is a fairly old theory, as it arose approximately 2.5 thousand years ago. However, the term “idealism” itself was derived and formulated only in the 18th century, when the German mathematician and idealist Leibniz described Epicurus and Plato as the greatest materialist and the greatest idealist. In 1749, Diderot, a supporter of materialism, called idealism the most absurd version of the system of all existing ones.
Negative sides of an idealist
Despite all the positive qualities of an idealist, building relationships with him can be very difficult. His idealistic outlook encourages him to strive for the maximum. At the same time, in the pursuit of perfection, the idealist often does not spare either himself or those around him. Such a person places moral values, honesty, and justice above all else and expects, and often demands, the same from others.
If an idealist is disappointed in someone, then it becomes almost impossible to win his favor and trust again.
For a man of such character it is indeed very important that people live up to his standards
Instead of monitoring his behavior, an idealist may begin to reshape the world and those around him according to his own ideas about how things should be. At such moments, he himself does not notice how he turns into a real fanatic and tyrant.
Another negative character trait that can be found in an idealist is mental arrogance. By refusing to cultivate a sense of respect for other people and their ideas, he risks turning into a kind of refined intellectual who perceives only his own life values as meaningful and important.
Since an idealistic person has little interest in the physical and material aspects of life, he is often unsettled in everyday life. He may be successful in his career, but money and status are not valuable to him.
An idealistic person does not intentionally strive to achieve material success
Unless it is necessary to ensure the implementation of some socially important project. For women who want to see their chosen one as the breadwinner of the family, this trait may seem like a disadvantage
Sometimes idealists do not consider it necessary to spend their time and effort on earning their daily bread
There are also idealistic people among girls. Not every man will decide to court one of these young ladies. After all, an idealist, oddly enough, is not at all a naive dreamer when it comes to building relationships. She makes high moral demands on a potential partner, and it can be much more difficult to impress her than a more down-to-earth girl.
Varieties of Idealism
Idealism is divided into two main varieties: subjective and objective.
The basis of the subjective is the existing sensation, idea, as well as the consciousness of a particular individual. It is worth noting that subjective idealism completely denies the presence of objects independent of man behind all sensations.
Objective idealism differs from subjective idealism in that it takes as its basis not personal, but some mystical consciousness, that is, the world mind, the universal will, or something similar. Moreover, the presence of any separate consciousness from man does not exist, and any manifestation of idealism leads to divine theory and religion.
Preamble
Extreme versions of idealism deny that any “world” exists outside of our minds. Narrower versions of this philosophical movement, on the contrary, argue that the understanding of reality primarily reflects the work of our minds, that the properties of objects do not have a standing independent of the minds that perceive them.
If there is an external world, we cannot really know it or know anything about it; all that is available to us are mental constructs created by the mind, which we falsely attribute to the things around us. For example, theistic forms of idealism limit reality to only one consciousness - the divine.
Basic ideas of idealism
The basis for idealism is the primacy of everything spiritual and immaterial, while everything material is relegated to the background. This feature makes idealism extremely close to religion, which also asserts the finitude of the world in time, as well as its arrangement by God. Idealism uses the teleological point of view as the main counter-argument to materialistic determinism. However, it is worth noting that idealism has a wide number of interpretations, despite the fact that the term is obviously considered to be originally philosophical.
From the point of view of the theory of class society, idealism is a certain scientific continuation of various mythical, religious and fantastic ideas. Idealism and its various philosophical issues and features greatly impede scientific progress. Nevertheless, the questions raised by the followers of idealism contributed to the rapid pace of development of philosophy, since they made it possible to explore various forms of knowledge.
In any case, idealism is extremely closely related to religion, since it is inherently a certain conceptual and conceptual expression of a religious point of view. In almost all centuries, idealism has been a certain philosophical approach to the justification of faith.
Definition in simple words
Idealism is the philosophical credo of those people who believe in high ideals and strive to make them real, although they know that sometimes this is impossible. This concept is often contrasted with pragmatism and realism, where people have goals that are less ambitious but more achievable.
This sense of “idealism” is very different from how the word is used in philosophy. From a scientific point of view, idealism is the basic structure of reality: adherents of this movement believe that its one “unit” is thought, not matter.
Basic Concepts of Idealism
Some of the first arguments in this direction were formulated in Ancient Greece. They were started by Pythagoras , who considered numbers to be the independent essence of things, and their harmony to be the essence of the universe. Plato, in turn, is considered the founder of the philosophical system of objective idealism. He put forward the point of view according to which, in addition to the material world, there is a world of ideas , which is accessible only to the “eyes of the mind.” Within this ephemeral world, there are various ideas and concepts that allow them to be promoted and develop the material world. At the same time, the material world itself is seen as a shadow of the world of ideas. Plato believed that the world of ideas is the divine kingdom, where before the birth of a person his soul lived, and where it will return after death. However, Plato's student, Aristotle, disputed this point of view.
A significant contribution to the development of the concept of idealism was made by the German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 - 1716). In his opinion, the world consists of various elements that are capable of perception and consciousness. These elements were called monads, and were a reflection of the infinite Universe.
However, objective idealism reached its greatest development in the works of the German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel (1770 - 1831). He put forward the theory that there is a certain World Mind, which was the Absolute Idea. It is this that becomes the basis for the formation of all concepts and gradually acquires a material shell, giving rise to the surrounding world and the person himself. It was the emergence of man that became the starting point for a new stage in the development of the Absolute Idea, since it was able to manifest itself not only in the form of objects of the physical world, but also as a spiritual one - human consciousness. The basis of Hegel's idealism is the idea of development and dialectics. Moreover, the main feature of this point of view is that objective idealism separates general concepts and laws from specific objects and phenomena, elevating ideas to the absolute.
The classic manifestation of subjective idealism is the doctrine that was created by the English Bishop George Berkeley. He believed that all objects of the physical world are some stable combinations of human sensations. It is worth noting that the excessive development of such an idea leads to the conclusion that there is nothing in the world except sensations. Such beliefs resulted in a separate movement called solipsism. However, Berkeley did not support solipsism, and as a limitation he determined that sensations are the influence of God on the soul. Thus, the close connection between religion and idealism was once again emphasized.
English School
The difference in worldviews of dogmatic idealism is represented by the students and followers of the English school. Philosophers deny spiritual entities, the independence of subjects, and give importance to the existence of groups of associated ideas and consciousnesses in the absence of subjects. Their views intersect with empiricism and sensationalism. Mill founded this theory of unconsciousness, but Hume refuted its objectivity, since it was incompatible with any proven knowledge.
Features of the development of modern idealism
In modern philosophy there are quite a large number of existentialists who are close to idealistic views. Among them we can highlight L. Shestov (1866-1938), N. Berdyaev (1874-1848), M. Heidegger (1889-1976), G. Marcel (1889-1973), J.P. Sartre (1905-1980), A. Camus (1913-1960). It is important to note here that for every existentialist the most important component is the existence of an individual person with his feelings and experiences. From this the task of philosophy is formed, which is to find some meaning of a person, that is, his true existence. In order to understand the world around us, a person must first understand his own meaning of existence. Here, the point of view of K. Jaspers is indicative, who argues that the scientific approach does not allow answering the question about the meaning of life and the meaning of science itself.
At the same time, according to existentialists, the true form of any philosophical knowledge is intuition, which in its essence is some reflection of the subjective experiences of the individual. Also, all existentialists divide human existence into genuine and inauthentic. Genuine implies a free life, where a person makes all decisions independently, and is also responsible for his own decisions. Inauthentic life is the complete immersion of an individual in everyday life.
It is worth noting that in the 20th century, another philosophical movement appeared - personalism, which in its essence began to closely intersect with subjective idealism. All personalists consider a person from the point of view of two aspects: spiritual, that is, a person as a person, and also material, a person as an individual. The first aspect is explained by the presence of a person’s free and reasonable spiritual fundamental principle and freedom of choice. The second aspect is formed on the fact that man is part of nature and society, and is also subject to its laws. Personalists argue that the individual man submits only to God, in contrast to the individual man, who also submits to society. From this feature follows the importance of religion, which acts as a link between the divine personality and man.
Historical purpose
Despite the long existence and age of philosophy, the origin of the term dates back only to the 17th-18th centuries AD. The words “idea” and “idealists” were constantly circulating in scientific circles, but did not find a corresponding continuation. Until, in 1702, Leibniz called Plato and Epicurus great maximalists and idealists.
Later, Diderot defined the concept of idealists. The French figure called such philosophers blind, recognizing only their own existence, the existence of the world of sensations.
Kant perceived direction as the theory of the existence of objects in space separately from man. The thinker did not accept the material form of flow. The German classic was the author of transcendental (formal) idealism, which opposed the previous one. Based on the impossibility of the origin of things outside our consciousness, Kant argued that nothing can exist outside the human mind.
The year 1800 was the discovery of Schelling's theory of the extension of a formal principle to the scale of the knowledge system as a whole.
Hegel believed that the essence of the doctrine boils down to the non-recognition of the finite as indisputably valid. The scientist believed that self-respecting intellectual science is subject to the principles of this particular focus.
According to Marx, dynamic reality developed only through idealistic actions, but figuratively. Materialism reflected contemplation, a lack of action.
Engels argued in 1886 that supporters of the theory of the primacy of spirit over nature unwittingly became the founders of the idealistic concept. Opponents who recognize the primacy of nature become adherents of materialism.
The History of Philosophy, published in 1957-1965 in the USSR, explained: “The main stages in the development of a branch of science are the confrontation of a pair of leading movements, where one reflects the breakthrough ideas of society, and the other comes down to conservative, reactionary views.”
The history of the use of the term became widespread in the 19th and early 20th centuries, especially in European countries.
Kant's supporters considered themselves idealists, while representatives of the British school of absolute idealism became followers of Hegel.
In the second half of the twentieth century, sages and thinkers avoided using the term, but when discussing, they increasingly used the word “ideology.”
Differences between materialism and idealism
These two directions in philosophy have been competing with each other almost since the very beginning of philosophy. Materialism is a completely opposite concept to idealism. Its main postulates are:
- the world is material, exists outside and independently of human consciousness;
- all matter is primary, and consciousness is one of the properties of matter;
- objective reality is the direct subject of knowledge.
If considered from a social point of view, idealism is the opposite of materialism and acts as a worldview of conservative and reactionary classes who are not interested in the correct reflection of existence.
Due to the fact that these two directions are completely opposite, only one of them can be true. Most scientists are inclined to believe that materialism is the more truthful side.
The history of the rivalry between materialism and idealism can be studied in the teachings of various famous philosophers, where all such points of view are consistently presented.
Subjective opinion
According to this trend in idealism, only ideas can be known and have any reality. In some treatises it is also called solipsism or dogmatic idealism. Thus, no statement about anything outside one's mind has any justification.
Bishop George Berkeley was the main proponent of this position, and he argued that so-called “objects” existed only insofar as we perceived them: they were not constructed from independently existing matter. Reality only seemed to persist, either because people continued to perceive things or because of the persisting will and mind of God.
