What is empiricism in philosophy? The essence of the direction, representatives

Empiricism in philosophy is called one of the methods of understanding the world around us. Its basis is the individual’s own personal experience, obtained through his senses, and any conclusion based on personal experience is recognized by empiricists as either true or close to true. The founder of this movement is the English philosopher Francis Bacon. From this article you will learn in more detail about what empiricism is, what its main ideas are, how empiricism and rationalism are related.

Philosophy of modern times

The philosophy of modern times has a time frame from the 17th to the 20th centuries. It is often associated with the period of revolutionary movements in Western European countries. It was during this period that the philosophical direction of empiricism was born and developed.

The main features of modern philosophy are:

the emergence of a problem in the relationship between subject and object;
the question of knowledge of nature is brought to the fore, relying on experience and experiment;
cognition is fundamentally based on the study of the system as a whole, and not its individual parts;
a new form of materialism is emerging, reflected in such sciences as mechanics and mathematics.

It was this period that became a kind of collection of necessary conditions for the development of a new philosophical direction. And, thanks to him, we can know what empiricism is.

What is empiricism, empirics - definition, provisions

Issues of knowledge of processes, events and phenomena occurring around us have always occupied a special place in human thinking. Humanity is ignorant of many different things, which requires the use of a variety of methods and skills to learn.

There are many different methods that are used to study processes and phenomena. Some can be very effective, others will reveal the object of study only from one side. Sometimes the use of some methods simply cannot be feasible due to their specificity, while others can be used to study almost any problem . But it is better to combine methods, since this is how you can achieve the best result.

The concept of empiricism

In order to understand what empiricism is, it is first and foremost worth understanding the essence of the term empiricist, which is its basis. Empirics implies a generalized concept of everything that is based on achieving results in the process of practical activity. It was this concept that became the foundation for the formation and further development of such a philosophical movement as empiricism.

Empiricism in philosophy is a direction that asserts that all reliable knowledge can be based only on sensory experience, which includes observations and experiments.

Methods of empirical knowledge

Since the essence of empiricism is the knowledge of the world through sensory perception, the object being studied is displayed primarily from the side of its external state, which has the ability to be assessed by a person by one or another sense organ. Experimental research in empiricism is based on knowledge of an object using the following methods:

description;
comparison;
measurement;
observation;
experiment.

The above methods of empiricism enable a person to create conclusions based on conducting a particular experiment. All results obtained must be generalized using the inductive method, or rather, specific conclusions to general ones. In this case, it is necessary to avoid the deductive method. Using the inductive method, empiricists could generalize the information obtained during experience with great gradualism, moving from specific facts to small scientific propositions, and then to increasingly higher ones.

Formation of a research base

The author of the dualistic direction on which the empirical approach is based is the philosopher Descartes. Psychologists who adhere to the views of dualism separated the mental and physical components of the individual. In this case, mental knowledge is based on personal experience. Inner experience (sensualism) is the basis of self-knowledge.

At first, science developed in two forms: materialistic and idealistic. In the 19th century, the observation method became the main way to study psychic phenomena. Gradually it transformed into a new type of experimental research - conducting experiments with internal sensations.

The understanding of experience in the empirical approach divided supporters of idealism and materialism. The former defined it as a subjective phenomenon, the latter are based on real forms of behavior that can be studied by objective methods.

Empiricism and rationalism

The empiricism of the new philosophy is opposed to such a direction as rationalism, whose main source of knowledge was and remains reason. Rationalism welcomes methods such as theoretical speculation and abstract principles of knowledge. Its founders were F. Descartes, B. Spinoza, V. Leibniz.

While rationalists derive formulas and theoretical speculations about space, empiricists claim that all this is not a fact, because it also needs to be verified.

Forms of empiricism

It is worth understanding that different philosophical trends, examples of which are the empiricism and rationalism discussed above, do not always exclusively deny each other’s postulates. Logically this is not possible. Thus, the essence of empiricism and the views opposing it is to prove what exactly is the main, and not the absolute, source of knowledge. In other words, they allow each other’s ideas to be reflected in real life, but to a much lesser extent in comparison with their own.

Many areas of knowledge have different forms. Empiricism is no exception; it is divided into two main forms:

immanent;
transcendental.

Immanent form

The immanent form implies ways of proving that all existing knowledge consists of a combination of individual sensations. As history shows, such methods ultimately lead to skepticism or the assumption of the transcendental.

One of the representatives of this form of empiricism, Hume, adhered to the idea of the absence of reality outside consciousness. In his views, impressions are strong products of human mental activity, while ideas are weak and pale. Accordingly, impressions can be a source of knowledge, but ideas cannot. But, developing this point of view, Hume himself came to the realization that even impressions can exist apart from consciousness.

Another representative of the immanent direction of empiricism, Mill, like his like-minded person, developed the idea of the existence of consciousness exclusively within the framework of such mental manifestations as ideas and emotions. But he also ultimately admitted the possibility of existence outside consciousness.

Francis Bacon

Among the representatives of modern empiricism one can hear many familiar names, often appearing on the pages of publications devoted to philosophy. Among them are Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, John Dewey, but it is Bacon who is considered the founder of this trend. Thus, today we can know what empiricism is thanks to the teachings of this philosopher. He was not only a thinker, but also a political figure, among whose written works the “New Organon” and “New Atlantis” stood out. And the world-famous aphorism “Knowledge is power” belongs to him.

Bacon did not adhere to radical forms of empiricism. On the contrary, he fully supported the idea of its interaction with other philosophical views, believing that theoretical thinking and practical experience can exist in unity. So, as proof of his words in one of his works, he cites an insect such as a bee as an example. After all, it is not limited to collecting nectar from plants, but also creates a new product from it - honey.

But still, as a representative of empiricism, the main source of knowledge in Bacon’s ideas is recognized as experience, which saturates the mind, confirms or refutes the reliability of specific knowledge. In order to find out the truth, according to Bacon, it is necessary to obtain a sufficient amount of experience, and when it comes to hypotheses, then experience is the best method of proving them.

One of the main goals of humanity is to understand the Universe. And for this, God endowed man with intelligence. But, according to the theory of F. Bacon, on the path of man’s achievement of truth and understanding of the Universe, there are obstacles or, in other words, errors. He called them idols or ghosts, and also divided them into four groups.

Literature

John Mill, "System of Logic" and "An Inquiry into Philosophy p. William Hamilton";
Spencer, “Psychology” (mainly volume IV, containing Spencer’s theory of knowledge);
Laas, “Idealism and Positivism”;
Lapshin I. I.
Empiricism // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg, 1890-1907.
Taine, “On Mind and Knowledge” (translated under the editorship of Strakhov);
Dühring, "Course of Philosophy";
Lewis, Questions of Life and Spirit;
V. V. Ilyin.
Theory of knowledge. Introduction. Common problems. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1993. - 168 p. — 3000 copies. — ISBN 5-211-02646-2.
V. V. Ilyin.
Theory of knowledge. Epistemology. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1994. - 136 p. — 2000 copies. — ISBN 5-211-03240-3.
Helmholtz, “Facts in Perception” and an article on “geometric axioms”, which marked the beginning of the philosophical literature on pangeometric speculation (placed in a collection of articles on pangeometry, published in Kazan in memory of Lobachevsky in 1892);
Vl. Soloviev, “Critique of Abstract Principles”;
Alexander Vvedensky, “Experience in constructing a theory of matter” (1888, part I);
M. Karinsky, “Classification of Conclusions” and a number of articles on empiricism published in the “Journal of Min. Nar. Enlightenment,” 1897 (II), 1901 (V, VIII, IX), 1902 (IV), 1903 (II, VIII, XI) and 1904 (II);
Chelpanov, G.I., “The Problem of Perception of Space” (part I, 1896, and part II, 1904; the first part treats the issue from a psychological, the second - from an epistemological point of view).
"History of Materialism" by Lange;
Brochard, "Les sceptiques grecs"; Baumann, "Raum, Zeit und Zahl";
Lasswitz, "Geschichte der Atomistik";
Ryabo, “Modern English Psychology.”
Quine V. O. Empirical evidence
Carnap R. Empiricism, semantics and ontology
Kissel M.A.
The fate of the old dilemma (rationalism and empiricism in bourgeois philosophy of the 20th century). - M.: Mysl, 1974. - 279 p. — 21,000 copies.

When writing this article, material was used from the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron (1890-1907).

Types of idols (ghosts)

Barriers to understanding the world in Bacon's perception have the following categories:

Idols of the race are delusions that are inherent in almost all of humanity. They are expressed in the fact that the mind imposes certain labels, definitions on things that it itself has developed, even if they are not true. An example is what often happens in the life of every person, when the mind finds an easy way to solve a problem, it is ready to close its eyes to circumstances that contradict this solution. Stereotypes are something that can be classified in this category.
The idols of the cave express a distorted understanding of a person in relation to his individual life experiences. Every person is born and lives his life in certain conditions. Family, school, books, friends - all this makes up a certain individual set of human values, which can be represented as a cave. In this regard, having already certain established foundations, it is sometimes difficult for people to understand each other or correctly perceive nature itself, life, the universe. It is almost impossible to meet a person who looks at life with an exclusively impartial gaze, without turning to his interests and knowledge, which were instilled in him literally from the cradle.
The idols of the square (idols of the market) are the most difficult obstacles to the path of knowledge, according to Bacon. They expose people to misconceptions that arise due to an incorrect understanding of the meaning of certain words and phrases. It often happens that people perceive the same phrase or phrase differently. Words, as a rule, have multiple meanings, which makes them a source of distorted understanding of things. Sometimes they may not explain at all, but on the contrary, confuse.
Idols of theater (idols of theories) - are expressed in blind faith in existing scientific theories, teachings, authorities that prevent the mind from seeing the truth with a new look.

Soul and experiment

Empiricism greatly influenced psychology - it all started with Wolff’s book “Empirical Psychology” in 1732: the author proposed studying not abstract questions about the existence of the soul, but its actual manifestations, and also found connections between the psyche and physical events.

A century and a half later, in 1879, the scientist Wundt opened the first laboratory of experimental psychology. Here they studied sensations, perception, attention, feelings with all their might.

Then psychoanalysis arose, Gestalt psychology with its studies of insights, Pavlov’s concept of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes and behaviorism.

Yes, in the past psychology often slipped into mysticism, but now it successfully implements the principles of empiricism. Science has become serious and precise, supported by neuroscience and the latest brain research techniques.

In the conditions of our new times, it is important for every person to keep a finger on the pulse of their own experience: yes, it is not always positive, but in any case it is necessary! Some Wikium courses are especially useful for this. For example, “Profiling” will teach you to “read people” by non-verbal nuances, identify their hidden intentions and even predict actions - all this, of course, based on gaining valuable experience. This skill is indispensable both in professional, social and personal life.

Source

Thomas Hobbes

Hobbes was not only a continuator of Bacon's views, but also his direct student. His most famous work was Leviathan.

He developed the idea that every person is initially born with a purified consciousness, in which there is no knowledge, and he acquires it in the process of life precisely with the help of experience and sensory perception. Since the senses perceive various signals from the environment and transmit them to a person, Hobbes pays special attention to them. He called them signs and organized them into the following classification:

signals – speech sounds made by animals, for example, growling, meowing, etc.;
labels are a kind of signs that a person comes up with to summarize something;
natural signs - sounds of nature, such as the sound of rain, whistling wind, thunderstorm;
arbitrary communicative designations – existing languages of communication;
signs are speech that has a narrow scope of application due to its specificity. For example, religious terms, scientific phrases.

John Locke

Another adherent of empiricism, John Locke, is known for his work “Essay Concerning Human Understanding.” Locke's main ideas boil down to the following postulates:

man has absolutely no innate ideas and principles;
at birth a person has a completely intact mind, like a blank slate;
There is nothing in the human mind that does not previously exist in sensations and feelings.

Thus, all of the above comes down to the idea that a person enriches his originally pure mind through experience.
According to Locke, all the sensations that a person receives from his environment are the main source of knowledge. Locke divided experience into two types:

external experience - it was expressed in sensations that can be experienced upon contact with the material forms of the world;
internal - this type of experience is called reflection, which is expressed in one’s own observations.

John Locke is considered one of the first to put forward sensory perceptions caused by the surrounding external world as the main point of the entire mental life of a person.

What is sensationalism?

Sensualism is one of the trends in the theory of human cognition, which arose from the views of ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the most basic and reliable form of cognition are sensations and feelings. Sensualism (lat. sensus perception) was divided into extreme and moderate (in some cases the influence of reason was recognized). As a doctrine, extreme sensationalism gained great popularity in philosophical circles and contained the following postulates:

The mind receives all external experience and knowledge only through sensations;
born ideas do not exist, the mind is a “blank slate”;
there is nothing in the mind that has not previously arisen in the senses;
the external world is the source of knowledge;
intelligence has only a derivative meaning.

Sensualism in psychology

The ideas and principles of sensationalism had a powerful influence on the psychological science of the 18th century. The German physiologist and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt began to develop experimental psychology: he set up experiments whose task was to identify the primary sensations that make up the architectonics of the human soul. Sensualism in psychology is a paradigm emerging from philosophical teaching that studies mental life with primary reliance on sensory impressions. Subsequently, sensationalism was transformed into associative psychology.

Sensualism in philosophy

Ancient philosophy, which originated in Ancient Greece, was famous for its various schools and movements that influenced the whole world. Protagoras and Epicurus are considered to be the very first sensualist philosophers. Sensualism in philosophy is a “sensual” direction in resolving issues of cognition of existence, opposite to rationalism and intellectualism, based on the arguments of reason. Sensualism became widespread only at the end of the 18th century. thanks to the French philosopher Victor Cousin.

A great contribution to the development of the sensualistic theory of knowledge was made by J. Locke and later by the French abbot-philosopher Etienne Bonot de Condillac. J. Locke, in addition to sensations in sensationalism, considered reflection important in knowledge, with which E.B. de Condillac could not agree and spoke of reflection as not an independent phenomenon, but consisting of processed sensations. Condillac's main ideas about mental life:

There are two groups of sensations. The first group is hearing, vision, smell and taste. The second refers to touch.
Touch plays a primary role in understanding the external world.
Spiritual processes that occur independently, regardless of sensations, are an illusion.
Any knowledge contains a feeling at its core.