What is psychology - its history, methods used, areas of application and directions

Updated July 23, 2021 439 Author: Dmitry Petrov
Hello, dear readers of the KtoNaNovenkogo.ru blog. A person meets someone throughout his life, has conversations, and creates relationships. He also communicates with classmates and classmates, work colleagues, family members, relatives, and friends.

To choose the right approach and everything goes smoothly, you need to study human psychology. This direction of science will also be useful for personal development. The better you know yourself, the easier it is to discern negative traits for their subsequent correction.

Constantly taking care of your mental state helps to establish a sense of harmony and reduce stress. Let's find out what psychology is, what types and directions it has.

How psychology was born

During the period of antiquity, philosophy took upon itself the responsibility of studying man. Philosophers of that time adopted the concept of soul . It was she who personified the psyche and all its manifestations (emotional state, behavior).

Socrates viewed personality as a set of one's own values, beliefs, and life positions. He paid great attention to mental abilities, which he explored through conversation.

Aristotle identified 3 forms of the soul: plant, animal and rational. He argued that a person goes through all of them during growing up. He called the heart the main sense organ, and the soul the engine of the whole person.

In the Middle Ages, people were closely associated with religion, which preached that a person consists of a physical shell and a soul that completely fills it.

Already during the Renaissance, Descartes introduced the concept of a reflex, which formed the basis of psychology : an irritant comes from the outside world, an impulse passes through the brain, which gives back a human reaction.

The scientist Leibniz argued that there is a relationship between the soul and the body, and not, as they said before, they exist separately according to their own rules. He also first introduced the concept of the unconscious.

And Locke singled out the concept of consciousness. He distinguished between the accumulation of experience that comes from the external world and that experience that arises after reflection.

Müller, Weber, Fechner are famous physiologists who worked to prove the existence of reflexes , disprove the existence of a soul, and study mental processes.

Wundt first opened an institute in Leipzig in 1875 where experiments were carried out. It was there that psychology established itself as a science.

Scientific psychology

Psychology, as a branch of scientific knowledge, deals with the study and interpretation of the laws of the work of the human mental sphere. In scientific

psychology comes to the fore:

• general patterns;
• empirically proven facts;
• development of research methods;
• analysis of results.

Scientific psychology has a set of methods that make it possible to measure various psychological

processes, check the results.
The scientific approach is distinguished by its focus on academic knowledge and scientific thinking. All knowledge
and methods used in the work of a psychologist:

• clearly structured;
• rational;
• are based on experiments performed and professional observation.

The task of a psychologist when working with a client or group of people is to remain as objective as possible. At the same time, a specialist can interpret the information obtained during work or an experiment within the framework of a certain model chosen by him. Such interpretations may be more or less subjective.

Scientific psychology operates with concepts that reflect the most important properties of individuals, phenomena, objects, and the relationships between them. A scientific psychologist operates with standardized terminology, and his ability to use metaphors is limited. Many concepts from scientific psychology sound the same as in everyday psychology, but they differ in meaning.

Psychology is the science of man and personality

Psychology is the science of the patterns of emergence, formation, and development of the human psyche in different conditions and stages of life; how it will manifest itself in all humanity and the individual.

In order to collect information, scientists use the following methods :

1. observation is the simplest method, which consists in describing what is happening at the time of some situation or a long period of life;
2. experiment - it can be natural (in natural conditions with the introduction of small changes from specialists) and laboratory (occurs in artificially created conditions);
3. analysis of a person’s creativity - through it the state of the psyche is unconsciously manifested;
4. tests and assignments of various types;
5. conversation - open communication between a psychologist and a client;
6. interview – the specialist asks clearly formed questions.

Scientific developments from the field of psychology are also applied in practice . Methods are being created for diagnosing the client’s emotional state, as well as identifying disorders of memory, attention, thinking, and volitional sphere.

Scientific psychologists think about the correct structure of the consultation in order to obtain the necessary data, and so that the client feels comfortable.

One of the important points of practical psychology is the correction of mental problems , and of humans in particular. And also therapy , if longer sessions are needed to better understand the cause, strong unpleasant sensations.

Like any industry that is related to health care, this science creates a list of conditions for the human psyche that must be adhered to in organizing the educational process and work.

Preventive lectures are conducted and there are individual classes where they tell you how to protect yourself from neuroses, relationship problems, insomnia and other consequences of mental disorders.

We should not forget about human development from childhood. It is psychology that creates and comes up with new recommendations on how to raise a child and improve his speech and thinking.

Over time, teenagers, young men and adults become interested in how to develop certain personality traits. And then science comes to the rescue and provides a large number of books, trainings and one-on-one sessions with a psychologist.

Structure

The structure of psychology, or in other words, the structure of psychology, the type of activity, what science consists of and everything else that I will point out in this chapter.

The emergence of psychology as a science consisted of several stages:

At the first stage of its emergence, psychology existed as a science of the soul. This definition was given more than 2000 years ago. They tried to explain all phenomena in human life by the presence of the soul. The soul itself was compared to the human body, which became the basis of anthropomorphism. But since the soul is unprecedented and invisible, we can only believe in its existence. And everything that is built on faith is not science, but a kind of religion.

With the development of natural sciences, psychology as a doctrine of the soul does not fit into the teachings of scientists. For everything that the psychology of the soul claims cannot be proven, because it is impossible to observe objectively and analyze practically. And all that's left is to believe. A doctrine based only on faith is somehow a form of religious attitude towards the world.

The psychology of the soul was replaced by the so-called psychology of consciousness, that is, the second stage in the development of psychological science. The psychology of consciousness is already based on observation; in addition, it even becomes possible to experiment, thanks to which it has accumulated significant material about the properties and patterns of the inner spiritual life of a person. At the end of the 19th century, many scientists came to the conclusion that psychology, in order to become a science, must, as a rule, throw out the question of consciousness from its object, leaving only what can be directly seen and recorded. Thus, the third stage in the development of psychology arises, psychology as the science of behavior. This stage is called behaviorism.

The fourth stage in the development of psychological science, when it was possible to prove that there is no contradiction or identity between the mental and the material, but there is unity. Psyche is a function, i.e. the mode of action corresponding to the form of highly organized matter of the nervous system and its highest manifestation of the brain. Matter is the vehicle of the psycho. Psychology, therefore, is the science of the laws of the emergence, development and manifestation of the psyche in general and human consciousness in particular.

On the path to the development of psychology as a science, there were various schools, directions and concepts. They were of different natures and often contradicted each other. Thus, in Soviet psychological science, based on the communist idea, the goal was to develop a monistic approach to the study and explanation of psychological phenomena. However, despite ideological pressure, it was not possible to develop a unified approach to the study of the psyche. In specific studies of the Soviet period, sometimes directly, and in most cases, the definitions of psychologists of different directions and schools were hidden, which became evidence of the creative use of the achievements of world psychological science.

Psychology develops its own approaches to the study of science:

Introduction to psychology includes a number of areas. What they all have in common is that they use introspection as a method of studying the psyche, that is, a person’s observation of the contents and actions of his own consciousness. Finally, almost all modern psychologists believe that consciousness is a set of phenomena, some of which can be studied through introspection, i.e. through introspection.

Associate psychology has its origins in ancient philosophy. Within this direction, mental phenomena were explained mainly by the concept of association. This direction in psychology has existed for quite a long time. Later studies led to the refusal to absolutize this direction.

Analytical psychology was founded by Swiss psychologist C. G. Jung (1875-1961). He viewed the process of mental development of the individual as the assimilation by consciousness of the contents of the personal and collective unconscious. Cognitive psychology (Latin knowledge, cognition) is one of the modern branches of psychology. Research by representatives of cognitive psychology related to the analysis of various aspects of human mental activity. Among the principles of cognitive psychology is the attitude towards a person as an active, actively perceiving being, who in his mental activity is guided by certain plans, rules and strategies. Representatives of cognitive psychology are distinguished by their research aimed at moving from understanding a complex phenomenon to understanding a simple one. Information theory and research in the field of artificial intelligence had a significant influence on the development of the conceptual apparatus of cognitive psychology.

Neobehavior is a movement in American psychology that emerged in the 1930s. She accepted the basic assertion of behaviorism, according to which the object of psychology is the objective observation of the body's response to environmental stimuli (SR schema). However, representatives of neo-behavior introduced an “intermediate variable” into the general scheme as a link between stimulus and response (S - O - R). They believe that the “intervening variable” (O) determines the cognitive and motivational components of behavior. Proponents of this direction founded the “law of action” (“law of goods”) and considered the behavior of an individual as a series of influences (reactions) to certain benefits (incentives) that the individual receives. They believe that the midpoint (O) cannot be analyzed by objective methods. Gestalt psychology is one of the trends in psychology of the 20-30s of the 20th century, created by W. Wertheimer (1880-1943), W. Keller (1887-1967), K. Koffka (1886-1941) and other German psychologists. They assumed the primacy of the whole over the parts and the form over the material (Gestaltism. Image, form and configuration). Unlike associative psychology, Gestalts consider holistic images, rather than sensations, as the original and fundamental element of the psyche. Accordingly, these images are created by the individual's desire to form simple, balanced, symmetrical and coherent figures, which are characterized by constancy and persistence. From a perceptual perspective, Gestalt researchers have adopted the concept of "gestalt" and the idea of ​​cultural entities as wholesalers whose elements are combined into a single structure.

Humanistic psychology emerged in the early 1950s. It is not homogeneous, but all its proponents are of the opinion that psychology should not be modeled on the basis of the natural sciences: man should be studied as an active object of study. Representatives of this direction - A. Maslow (1908-1970), K. Rogers (1902-1982) and others - focused on the following topics: Personality, development, activity, creativity, autonomy, self-realization, self-improvement, freedom of choice, responsibility, human aspiration to higher values, etc.

Areas of psychology

Depending on what area people are studied from, different types of psychology are distinguished:

1. general psychology - it is she who collects information to understand how the human psyche works in general;
2. social – studies the interaction of people in large and small groups;
3. personality psychology – considers a person as an individual, evaluates his individual qualities, and looks at how a particular person interacts with society;
4. experimental – collects information based on the empirical method of obtaining data;
5. genetic – studies the influence of hereditary qualities;
6. differential - compares the psyche of people with different development, cultural background and outlook on life, age and gender;
7. special – considers people who have defects in mental development;
8. developmental psychology – studies a person at all stages of life, identifies the main characteristics and needs of a particular age;
9. evolutionary - explains the behavior of modern man on the basis of the habits and behavior patterns of primitive people, which manifest themselves to this day;
10. pedagogical – provides information on how to raise and teach children;
11. family – deals with relationships between a couple, spouses, parents and children, relatives;
12. medical – studies mental disorders, as well as the interaction between doctor and patient, teaches how to correctly convey information about the disease;
13. psychophysiology – explains the psyche as a result of the nervous system and the influence of hormones;
14. judicial – helps to establish the sanity of suspects and defendants;
15. engineering, aviation, sports, military, etc. – depending on the field of work, there is its own specificity of the human psyche, which is taken care of by a narrowly focused type of science.

Specifics of psychological knowledge and its place in the system of sciences.

General psychology

Lecture 1

Lecture topic 1.1. “Psychology as a scientific discipline. Specifics of psychological knowledge and its place in the system of sciences. The emergence of the psyche in phylo- and anthropogenesis. Psyche and brain."

Psychology as a scientific discipline.

The word “Psychology” comes from the roots of two words: “Psyche” - breath, soul, “Logos” - word (reasonable, meaningful word), knowledge, science, order. The term “Psychology” was introduced into scientific use by the German philosopher Christian Wolf (1679-1754) more than 200 years ago.

In different contexts, the word psychology can have different meanings and meanings:

1. Science of psychology (“department of psychology”, “foreign psychology”, etc.).

2. Individual characteristics of a person, how his mental properties are structured, and what distinguishes him from other people (his abilities, temperament, character, temperament, etc.) (“psychology of the victim”, “psychology of the criminal”, “female/ male psychology).

3. The specifics of social relations between people in groups and related social phenomena (“crowd psychology”, “family psychology”).

Initially, psychology as a science took shape in 1879 as a natural science (biological) discipline (Wilhelm Wundt).

There are several approaches to defining what psychology is:

1st approach - Tautological . Psychology is the science of the soul, or the psyche.

The study of the psyche involves consideration of:

1. Mental processes (cognitive, emotional and volitional),

2. Mental states (passivity, activity, fatigue, apathy, euphoria, etc.),

3. Mental properties (temperament, character, abilities and orientation of the individual (prevailing needs, motives and goals of behavior) and

4. Mental formations (knowledge, abilities, skills). (For more details, see the end of the file)

Approach 2 – Descriptive (questions to which psychology is looking for answers are described) . Psychology is the science of human behavior (not to be confused with ethology - the science of behavior, or more precisely, the morals and habits of animals).

Within the framework of the descriptive approach, we can say that psychology studies HOW a person behaves and WHY he behaves the way he does.

If we consider these questions in more detail, we can say that psychology as a scientific discipline tries to answer five main questions, each of which, in fact, determines the main directions of psychological research:

1. How do people behave, and why do they behave this way (in different situations, how does their current state change behavior in the same situation)?

2. How do people learn and understand the world around them? (cognitive psychology, clinical psychology, if we talk about disorders of cognitive processes and consciousness). (A person’s cognition of the surrounding world presupposes the coordinated implementation of the following processes: “Sensation”, “Perception”, “Memory”, “Thinking and knowledge”, “Language”).

3. How do people interact with each other? (social Psychology)

4. How do people develop? (Developmental Psychology)

5. How do people differ from each other? (differential psychology)

Approach 3 – Functional – within the framework of this approach, the studied functions of the psyche are listed, which are studied by psychology.

The founder of the functional approach, William James (1842-1910), believed that the psyche serves the purpose of adapting an individual to the outside world, for which it implements two functions: cognitive and regulatory.

1. COGNITIVE function, it consists in creating a subjective picture of the world and oneself, reflecting the realities of the external world and the internal states of the body, and therefore this function is also called reflective.

2. REGULATORY function (= regulatory) is to control the behavior of the individual).

Actually, these two functions are most often used to define the psyche (the psyche is a subjective reflection of reality, necessary for the subject to live and act in it, that is, to control his behavior in the environment. Possession of the psyche is a sign of a subject, which can be a person or animal).

3. Later, a number of scientists, in particular B.F. Lomov (1927-1989), added to the list of functions realized by the psyche the COMMUNICATIVE function, which ensures the interaction of two individuals with a psyche.

4. In addition to the three functions of the psyche, which directly ensure the adaptation of individuals, today scientists also identify a fourth function of the psyche - CREATIVE . Creative activity leads to the creation of a new reality that goes beyond the existing one. In this regard, the creative function of the psyche can be not only non-adaptive, but even maladaptive.

Thus, we can give the following definition of psychology as a science: Psychology is a science that studies the characteristics and patterns of the emergence, formation and development of mental processes (perception, memory, thinking, etc.), mental states (emotions, feelings) and mental properties ( temperament, character, abilities) of a person, as well as the psyche of animals.

Subject of study of scientific psychology:

1. The psyche of a healthy person in physical and psychological terms.

2. Various facts of the mental side of human life, described qualitatively and quantitatively.

3. Psychological laws that describe and explain phenomena in human life

4. The mechanism for a person to create a subjective image of the objective world.

Tasks of psychology:

The main task of psychology as a science is to study the peculiarities of the formation, development and manifestation of mental phenomena and processes. At the same time, she sets herself a number of other tasks:

1. Study the qualitative and structural originality of mental phenomena and processes, which is not only theoretical, but also of great practical importance.

2. Analyze the functioning of mental phenomena and processes in connection with their determination by the objective conditions of people’s lives and activities.

3. Investigate the physiological mechanisms underlying mental phenomena, since without their knowledge it is impossible to correctly master the practical means of their formation and development.

4. To promote the systematic introduction of scientific knowledge and ideas about mental science into the practice of life and activity of people, their interaction and mutual understanding (development of scientific and practical methods of training and education, rationalization of the labor process in various types of human activity).

1. Study of the laws of the psyche and its activities.

2. Study of the development of the psyche at different stages of a person’s life (mental processes and states of varying complexity).

3. Disclosure of human properties from the position of social and biological.

Specifics of psychological knowledge and its place in the system of sciences.

The specifics of psychology are:

1. In human psychology, it is simultaneously both an object of knowledge (what is known) and a subject of knowledge (the one who knows). The consequence of this is that a psychological fact depends on its interpretation by the researcher and on its understanding by the subject.

2. The impossibility of studying mental phenomena directly using objective methods of study adopted in the natural sciences (immateriality of the psyche?). The content and characteristics of the psyche are studied indirectly by observing external changes in a person’s behavior and his physiological reactions (can be recorded objectively, but do not always correlate, accurately reflect what is happening in the mental sphere, nomothetic approaches), and by his self-report, self-description (ideographic approach) (subjectivity this information!).

Psychology as a science was initially formed within the framework of philosophy; its separation into an independent science occurred after W. Wundt’s proposal to use (by analogy with the natural sciences) the experimental method (method of introspection). This determined the specificity of psychology as a science - it is both a natural and a humanities science; more precisely, we can say that it remains a humanities science that constantly strives to become a natural science. Today, the nomothetic approach (the study of the psyche by its external behavioral and physiological objectively recorded manifestations) is predominant in psychology. This cognitive strategy is based on three principles of explaining the essence of mental phenomena: the principle of determinism, the principle of development, and the principle of systematicity.

3. Psychology is a compilative science (a combination of internally contradictory theories), in which there are different, sometimes complementary, and sometimes mutually exclusive approaches to the study, understanding and explanation of the same mental phenomena. In parallel, there exist (and are studied during training) different theories (a system of views that explains a phenomenon, a unique phenomenon of reality), different scientific schools and directions, the representatives of which sometimes have a negative and even hostile attitude towards each other. It is worth noting that the various interpretations and explanations of mental phenomena that exist within different schools can be chosen in connection with the individual preferences of the psychologist (interest, individual experience of a person, place of education, influence of authorities and fashion), and also depending on the framework within which approach, more tools have been developed for working with certain psychological problems.

Features (specifics) of scientific psychology that distinguish it from everyday (vulgar) psychology:

Processes	Everyday psychology (everyday knowledge)	Scientific psychology (scientific knowledge)
The acquisition of knowledge	In a specific situation	In an experimental situation (creation/control of study conditions)
Spontaneity, chance, unsystematicity	Regularity (consciously, purposefully, instrumentally equipped, systematized (research plan, correlation with other results, data from other authors))
Intuitiveness	Conceptuality (generalization)
Immediacy	Mediocrity
Knowledge retention	Knowledge is preserved in personal experience and fiction. Situational-contextual statement (aphorisms, proverbs, sayings, traditions, rituals). Associated with personal experience (empirical). They do not require a logical explanation, are indifferent to logic, and therefore are often contradictory.	Knowledge is preserved in scientific and educational literature. Knowledge is theorized, that is, systematized in the form of logically consistent provisions, axioms, and hypotheses. The basis for the directed accumulation and expansion of knowledge is the formulation of a testable hypothesis.
	Empirical criterion of reliability (from particular to general)	Logical criterion (from general to specific)
Reproduction of knowledge (transfer from generation to generation)	Knowledge is transferred through personal communication, is easily accessible, but usually does not contain the context of its receipt. Therefore, in a new context (conditions), they are discovered anew by new generations, through their own experience (the problem of fathers and children). There is, in fact, no accumulation of knowledge across generations.	Knowledge is transferred through specially organized training, which requires ability and effort from the learner. The accumulation of knowledge over generations occurs in the form of scientific theories, which can be refined and detailed by putting forward and testing hypotheses based on these theories. In addition to abstract statements (laws of theories), descriptions of the conditions for obtaining new knowledge are also transmitted, which makes it possible to reproduce experiments and recheck these laws.
Grade	In connection with social order	No

The place that psychology occupies among other sciences depends on the basis for the systematization of sciences. If we do not consider psychology among the basic, system-forming sciences, then it will seem to dissolve among other sciences, or occupy an intermediate position. If we consider psychology one of the basic sciences, then it will most often occupy a central place among other sciences about man and the world.

A. The position of psychology in the system of sciences according to B.M. Kedrov:

Psychology is located in, a little closer to philosophy, with which it is connected by origin, since the theory of knowledge initially developed in philosophy.

B. The position of psychology among other sciences according to J. Piaget:

V.B.F. Lomov identified a multidimensional system of connections between psychology and other sciences :

1) with the social sciences (through the branch of psychology - social psychology and related disciplines).

2) with the natural sciences (through psychophysics, comparative psychology and psychophysiology).

3) with medical sciences (through pathopsychology, medical psychology, neuropsychology and psychopharmacology).

4) with pedagogical sciences (through developmental psychology, educational and special psychology).

5) with technical sciences (through labor psychology and engineering psychology).

D. Two-dimensional (scale) diagram of the position of psychology in the system of sciences (M. Bunge):

a vertical axis is formed between the biological and social sciences; initially (in 1850) the range of problems and issues studied was narrow, the sciences did not overlap, and psychology was on this scale “between” the social and biological sciences. Later, the range of interests of the sciences expanded, overlapping areas of interest appeared, which led already 100 years later (in 1950) to the emergence of new modern sciences “at the junction” of the classical sciences.

1. Sociological social psychology

2. Psychological social psychology (including physiological social psychology)

3. Biopsychology

Main directions of psychology

Throughout time, new directions in psychology and approaches to humans have been created.

Today, many of them are actively used and are selected for a specific person and individual situation.

Probably everyone knows that the theory of psychoanalysis was created by Freud .

The main points are that the main problems and causes of behavior are hidden in the unconscious .

And the main stage in the formation of individuality occurs in childhood. Libido and fear of death are factors that often move a person. This method is suitable for the treatment of neuroses and old psychological traumas.

Gestalt psychology claims that you need to perceive the picture holistically, and not split it into separate elements, as the direction described above does. That is, look not at a specific personality trait, but at the whole person and the living conditions around him.

There are concepts of open gestalt, when some situation has not ended acceptably. Therefore, during sessions they play it, discuss it and close it so as not to disturb the client.

Hypnosis is used to bring a person into an altered consciousness and become closer to the unconscious. During the session, they try to extract the causes of the problem, negative factors that the client does not want to share in a normal dialogue. Positive attitudes can also be instilled. For example, that everything is fine and the person calms down.

Client-centered psychology in its name indicates that the main role in the session is given to the client. That is, he can help himself, only to do this he needs to be carefully directed in the right direction.

Therefore, most of the attention is directed to establishing a trusting relationship between the psychotherapist and his interlocutor, so that he trusts and feels confident.

Art psychology tells how, with the help of creativity, a person can pour out his negative emotions and feelings, and thereby relieve himself of heaviness. Also, the psychotherapist can give tasks and interpret their implementation (text, drawing, modeling), together with the client, study the problem hidden inside him, and find a way out.

The cognitive-behavioral direction deals with the correction of the client’s erroneous thinking.
A psychologist explains what a person is doing (or thinking) wrong. Gives examples, arguments, recalls various similar situations. It also shows how you can live by the new rules.

History of the development of psychology

The term "psychology" in Greek means "the science of the soul." This science originates in the depths of philosophical thought. Even the philosophers of Ancient Greece asked questions about the soul.

The origin of psychology as a science is considered ancient.

Early ancient authors often devoted their works to problems of human nature, his soul and mind. To date, from a number of views of ancient authors, only the classification of temperament of Hippocrates has been preserved, although many of Plato’s ideas influenced the development of the philosophical foundations of views on the psyche, in particular, the view of man as a being torn apart by internal conflicting motives, was reflected in psychoanalytic ideas about the structure personality.

The next stage in the development of psychology was the Middle Ages.

Medieval writings on psychology in Europe were mainly devoted to questions of faith and reason, primarily by Christian philosophers, starting with Thomas Aquinas.

The modern period began in the 16th century. It was during this time that the famous Roman philosopher Rudolf Goclenius first used the term "psychology" in 1590 to refer to the science of the soul. His modern Otto Kasmann is considered the first to use the term "psychology" in the modern scientific sense.

Representatives of the new era, such as R. Descartes and F. Bacon, believed that the body and soul have a different nature - this was a new look at the problem of psychology. “The soul and body live and act according to different laws and have different natures” R. Descartes.

The 19th century was the century of the gradual emergence of psychology as a scientific discipline, separating the relevant areas from philosophy, medicine and the exact sciences.

Ernst Weber studied the dependence of the intensity of sensations on the intensity of the stimuli that cause them.

Hermann Helmholtz studied the nervous system as the basis of the psyche and formulated ideas about “automatic conclusions” that underlie spatial perception.

However, the most important name in the history of the emergence of psychology as a science is Wilhelm Wundt. A student and collaborator of Helmholtz, Wundt opened the world's first psychological laboratory in 1879, where his introspection studies of the phenomena of consciousness were carried out. This year is considered the year of birth of psychology as a science.

The next turning point in psychology was the twentieth century.

The early twentieth century was characterized by rapid growth in several directions. One of these was psychoanalysis, a school of psychotherapy originally based on the work of Sigmund Freud, in which the individual was described as a system of several independent personality structures struggling with each other - ego (id), id (ego), superego (superego). In this conflict, the “I” represents the biological needs of a person, and the “superego” represents the needs of society and culture. The development of this school had a strong influence not only on practice, but also on science. This forced scientists to pay attention to phenomena that lie beyond consciousness, to the unconscious determinants of mental activity. The ideas of the first psychoanalytic school of Sigmund Freud were also further developed by Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav Jung.

In the United States, behaviorism, the school of psychology founded by James Watson on the work of Ivan Pavlov and E. Thorndick on learning, is actively moving forward. Behaviorists followed the positivist claim that science should eliminate all phenomena other than those that are directly observable. People were viewed as a “black box” into which stimuli came in and responses to those stimuli came out.

In Germany, Gestalt psychology is developing (M. Wertheimer, K. Koffka and W. Köhler), which is a further development on the path of studying the phenomena of consciousness. Unlike their predecessors, Gestalts did not attempt to isolate the "building blocks" that make up consciousness; on the contrary, they believed that “the whole is always greater than the sum of its parts” - this is their fundamental law. Within the framework of this school, many phenomena of perception and thinking were discovered.

The First World War stimulated the development of applied aspects of psychology, especially psychodiagnostics, as the army needed a means of assessing the abilities of soldiers. Intelligence tests were developed (A. Binet, R. Erkes).

In the 1930s and 1940s, the Nazis come to power in Germany, and many psychologists (many of them Jews) are forced to emigrate to the United States. Gestalt psychology practically ceased to exist, but K. Lewin and his Gestalt followers became important figures in American social psychology. However, thinkers such as Carl Gustav Jung and Martin Heidegger remained active in Nazi Germany. Jung continues to develop his doctrine of the collective unconscious; in 1934 he published one of his fundamental works, “Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious.”

J. Piaget publishes the results of analytical studies that reveal similar types of errors in children of the same age, which are practically absent in older children. Psychological and psychotherapeutic practice is actively developing. Psychoanalysis is divided into many branches and on its basis alternative forms of psychotherapy (Gestalt therapy, etc.) are formed.

L. S. Vygotsky formulated the basic principles of cultural-historical psychology based on Marxism. Within the framework of this direction, the need to study personality directly in the process of development under the influence of history and culture was postulated. Based on this direction, the theory of activity was subsequently built.

The 1936 decree “On pedological perversions in the Narkompros system,” which abolished soil science, actually froze the development of psychological science in the USSR for several decades.

The Second World War causes a new surge in the activity of psychologists in the field of applied psychology. Particular attention is paid to social psychology and ergonomics.

The 1950s and 1960s were an era of prosperity and active development of psychological science in various directions. In modern textbooks, most of the material is devoted to experiments and research of this period.

The theory of behaviorism could not provide answers to many questions that developing industry and military technology posed to science. The development of the most effective forms of presenting information on control panels of complex devices and other tasks required active study of not only simple reactions to stimuli, but also the complex mechanisms underlying perception. As a result of this demand, a field began to develop that was later called “cognitive psychology”: D. Broadbent conducted his research into the mechanisms of weakening of attention, and J. Miller published his famous article on the “magic number seven plus or minus two.”

Behavior modification methods are being actively developed based on behavioral theory. Wolpe develops a method of systematic desensitization, which turns out to be very effective in treating various types of phobias. Against this background, humanistic psychology and psychotherapy appear as an attempt to overcome the reduction of man to an automaton or animal (the theories of behaviorism and psychoanalysis). Humanistic psychologists propose to consider a person as a being of a higher level, endowed with free will and the desire for self-realization.

In the late 60s, along with the growing popularity of modern culture, psychology was strongly influenced by mysticism; in the wake of the success of research into psychedelic substances and new areas of consciousness, transpersonality arises, and a number of schools and training in personal growth are developing, some of which over time in religious cults: (Scientology, Lifespring). In 1966, the psychology departments of Moscow State University and Leningrad State University, as well as the department of psychiatry and medical psychology, were opened at RUDN University, which marked the end of 30 years of persecution of psychologists. This was largely due to the emerging demand for psychologists in industry and the army. Engineering psychology is actively developing in the USSR. However, for objective reasons, national psychology must remain extremely idealized in accordance with Marxist-Leninist constructs, which will give its further development some features. Marxist-Leninist theories (the theory of reflection) have somehow retained their influence on the training program for psychologists in some Russian universities.

From 1970 to 1980 There has been a rapid growth of cognitive psychology, which is moving along the path of gradually refuting its original postulates about the nature of the human psyche as an information processing system with limited capabilities. During this period, psychology established active connections with linguistics, which became inevitable after the “revolution”; psycholinguistics is being formed.

Other areas of psychology have seen steady growth and accumulation of knowledge; at the same time, a feeling of “eternal crisis” is once again emerging in psychological thought, since none of the modern trends gives hope for the imminent emergence of a truly complete and explanatory theory of human behavior.

In general, it can be stated that in the period from the late 1960s to the late 1980s, the formation of the theoretical and methodological foundations of psychological science was completed in the USSR, and psychology itself consolidated its position in the system of sciences.

Only in the second half of the 80s did a radical turn take place, which lifted the ideological “taboo” that for so many years had blocked the inclusion of domestic psychology in the general flow of world psychological science.

The main trend characterizing the end of the 20th century in Russian psychology in this regard is the abandonment of its opposition to foreign psychological science. The rejection of the axiomatic statement that “Soviet, Marxist psychology” is the only correct and promising direction for the development of science led to a change in the situation in the international contacts of Russian psychologists. If in the recent past almost all foreign psychology was branded as “bourgeois science”, and sometimes as a “servant of imperialism”, now this counter-version of the “Soviet bourgeoisie” is completely useless.

Currently, the system of psychological sciences is actively developing, every 4-5 years a new direction appears

Problems of psychology

So, we have figured out what is studied by psychological science. But what is this for? What are her tasks? Psychology textbooks highlight many problems. Here are some of the main ones:

1. Study and analysis of the fundamentals of psychology, personality patterns, as well as its development;
2. Study of psychic phenomena;
3. Analysis of how these phenomena form and develop;
4. Study of the mechanisms of various mental phenomena;
5. Finding ways to influence mental phenomena occurring in a person’s personality;
6. Formation of professional psychologists, as well as dissemination of valid knowledge about the science of psychology.

This is precisely the main task of this science. Studying psychology allows you not only to understand how social connections and relationships between people are built, but also allows you to better and deeper understand yourself.

Each person pursues his own goals when studying psychology

Psychology Research Methods

To correctly study the subject and object of psychological science, various methods are used. A method is a way of cognition, a certain set of mechanisms of cognition. As in any other science, general methods, special and specific, are used. In this section we will look at more specific and psychology-specific ways of knowing. These are the methods that are most applicable and effective in practice.

Observation

Observation allows us to recognize external factors of human behavior and its characteristics. When communicating with a client, psychologists pay attention not only to what he says, but also to how he behaves.

Body language and reactions allow us to draw conclusions about a person’s state, whether he is tense, afraid, and how important this or that issue is for him.

Self-observation

Self-observation is most often carried out through diaries and notes. For example, a person might keep an emotional diary. This allows you to analyze your emotional state, identify irritating factors and subsequently eliminate them from your life.

Self-observation allows you to say much more about yourself

Psychological tests

Psychological tests also reveal more about a person's personality. Of course, you can take tests online. There are a lot of them. Such tests are also available on our website.

However, for a complete clinical picture, their analysis from a professional is necessary. A psychologist will help you choose the right test option, assessment system, and also leave a clinical picture.

Conversations

Conversations are a way to find out more about someone. That is why meetings with a psychologist, psychotherapist and psychiatrist take place in the form of a dialogue. You can ask leading questions, clarify what will help you learn more about the situation and the person’s condition.

Suggestion

This method can be considered both negative and positive. Sometimes such a suggestion from the outside is enough to make a person feel insignificant. Suggestion at its core is the obsessive repetition of the same idea. Therefore, it is possible that in order to get out of a state of self-dislike, suggestion from the outside or self-hypnosis is also necessary.

Other methods

Today other methods can be used. Someone is trying to combine psychology and astrology. You can meet psychologists who use occult objects for their sessions (tarot, runes, etc.). Some people use hypnosis.

There is nothing wrong with expanding the possible methods. The most important thing is that they do not harm clients and patients.

Every psychologist looks for his own way to work with clients.

Subject and object of psychology

These concepts are studied in the process of obtaining professional education. And also when receiving medical education (a psychologist is not always a doctor, but a psychotherapist and psychiatrist have the status of doctors who can prescribe medication treatments for clients).

Item

The subject of psychology is the study of how various mental phenomena are formed, develop and cease

An object

The object is much wider than the subject. The object is the psyche as a whole and everything connected with it. The object includes elements of the subject

The objects of psychology as a science include the following elements and processes:

1. Mental processes (feelings and emotions, relationships, connections, love, friendship, manipulation, abusive and codependent relationships, etc.);
2. Conditions (also feelings and emotions, anxiety, nervousness, paranoia, perfectionism, empathy, melancholy, depression, bipolar disorder, nostalgia, schizophrenia, hedonism, conformism, frustration, sublimation, time pressure, misanthropy, etc.);
3. Properties (these include a person’s character, including egocentrism, psychotype, personality types, introversion and extraversion, cynicism, altruism, etc.);
4. Education (knowledge and skills, as well as habits of a particular person. For example, reflection, addictions, etc.)

Practical psychology

A special place in the classification of branches of psychology is given to practical psychology - a system of services aimed at providing psychological assistance to the population. The main goal of this direction is to create psychological and social conditions suitable for a person in all spheres of life.

Its structure includes the following areas and services:

• family and social protection;
• health systems;
• education systems;
• management, political activity;
• practical legal psychology and sociology;
• socio-psychological service of the army;
• practical psychology of work and career guidance;
• practical psychology and sociology of economics and business;
• psychology and pedagogy of sports.

Since the tasks of the main branches of psychology often overlap, and the methods of providing assistance often coincide, there are quite close connections between them, which determine a more complete study of the subject of research in certain conditions.

What does psychology study?

The center of study of any science is its subject. But it is classically customary to distinguish three main blocks of studying psychological science. Simply put, these are certain branches of knowledge that are the subject of study of the science in question. Let's take a closer look at them:

Fundamental psychology

Studies the human personality itself. That is, it reveals the basic and basic laws of the human psyche - character, its elements, feelings, emotions, as well as basic psychological laws and theories.

Applied psychology

The applied industry, in turn, is placed in environmental conditions. What does it mean? This means that this field studies the features of fundamental psychology in naturalistic settings. For example, features of personality development in certain conditions.

Practical psychology

Practical is devoted to the application of acquired fundamental and applied knowledge in practice. In simple words, this is the same analysis of a specific personality. For example, you are trying to determine what type of personality your friend has. Or is it simply the work of a psychologist.

Thus, generalizing the above, psychological science studies social and personal phenomena, such as:

1. Basic basic concepts;
2. Inner world and personality consciousness;
3. Unconscious processes of personality and consciousness;
4. Features of behavior;
5. Relationships between people and their characteristics;
6. Psychosomatics;
7. Mental disorders and illnesses;
8. Peculiarities of influence on the human psyche.

Psychology is a science that allows you to understand yourself and others

Is it possible to learn psychology on your own?

In the modern world, when there is the Internet and the opportunity to get all the resources for learning, this is possible. You can take courses in psychology (they are not equivalent to professional education), buy and read specialized literature, watch video lessons, or go to our website. Therefore, knowledge is quite accessible.

The main thing is to have time and desire. And also the purpose of your training.

It is important to understand that such self-education cannot be equated with education at a university. What does it mean? You will not be able to provide services to people on a monetary and professional basis.

Why study psychology

There can be a lot of goals. Let's look at some of them:

1. Know yourself better;
2. Help other people;
3. Build healthy and environmentally friendly relationships with other people;
4. Get out of conflicts correctly;
5. Adequately analyze the people around you;
6. Save a person (friend, buddy, relative) from problems. For example, help get out of abusive relationships, help with addictions, and also convince you of the need to see a specialist;
7. Work professionally and earn money (independent familiarization with the science of psychology can only be the first step to obtaining a higher education);
8. Experience your own stress and traumatic events correctly;
9. Personal growth.

In general, there are many goals for studying psychology. They can compile with each other. And also supplemented by personal motivation. For example, a person grew up in a family in which the mother used physical and psychological violence against the child. To prevent the vicious circle of violence and unhealthy psyche, the child begins to be interested in psychology. Tries to work through the problem so as not to repeat the same behavior in his own family.

Studying psychology provides many benefits to an individual.

Main branches of psychology and sections

Modern psychology includes several dozen independent branches. Moreover, new ones appear quite often. This is due to the enormous demand for psychological science in all spheres of human activity.

Articles on the topic

• What is professional stress, its main signs and types 08/29/2021
• Self-analysis and self-assessment of a teacher’s professional activity as the main criteria for his work 08/13/2021
• What is the role of self-esteem in choosing a profession 08/13/2021
• What does success in business depend on and how not to lose it 07/12/2021

The basis can be called the fundamental branches of modern psychology, which are united by common theoretical principles, concepts and methods. The problems that applied psychology solves are relevant for all scientific fields. The knowledge gained through research is used in specific areas - sports, space and many others. Special branches study individual issues that are of great importance for all science. Practical psychology is aimed at solving the psychological problems of specific clients; its specialists carry out preventive and corrective work.

The differentiation of psychology determines its ramifications. However, despite the differences in its branches, they are united by a common subject of study for all - the mechanisms of the psyche and their patterns.

Scheme of branches of psychology:

Theoretical psychology includes: general psychology, genetic, comparative, differential, history of psychology, mental modeling, psychophysiology, experimental.

Facts about psychology

Below are key facts and points related to psychology.
More detailed information is provided in the main part of the article:

• Psychology is the study of behavior and psyche
• We are unable to physically see mental processes such as thoughts, memories, dreams and sensations.
• Clinical psychology combines science, theory and practice.
• Cognitive psychology studies internal mental processes, the way people think, perceive, and communicate.
• Developmental psychology studies how people develop psychologically throughout life.
• Evolutionary psychology studies how psychological changes during evolution have affected human behavior.
• Forensic psychology is the application of psychology to the crime investigation process and to the law.
• Health psychology studies the effects of health on behavior, biology, and socialization.
• Neuropsychology studies the functioning of the brain in relation to various behaviors and psychological processes.
• Employment psychology examines how people perform work in order to develop and understand the functioning of organizations.
• Social psychology studies how people's behavior and thoughts are influenced by the actual or perceived presence of other people.