Psychoanalysis - classical and modern, its theory and methods

For more than two years I have been going to psychoanalytic therapy - the “light version of psychoanalysis”.

I did not choose this method because before studying the relevant literature I knew nothing at all about it. I don’t want to insist on efficiency - this is a matter of many factors. In my case, the process is slow, but I feel that I am getting rid of annoying cognitive distortions, challenging them, learning to build relationships and respond to difficult situations differently. Abstract anxiety and its main symptom—panic attacks, which had tormented me since school—went away in the first six months.

Every year I am haunted by the eternal, as I call it, change of cycles: autumn and winter are always productive for me, full of ideas and the meaning of life; spring and summer are a viscous depressive background, which I tried to cope with through self-harm. All my life I have had a hard time controlling my own impulsiveness and emotional swings. I decided to try something different instead of the usual destructive way - I realized that I should trust someone.

It seems to me that the main role is played not so much by the method as by the participants in the process themselves. The relationship between two people, which unfolds within the narrow confines of a setting, is the value and goal that psychotherapists should ideally adhere to, whatever direction they prefer.

Before that, I went to a psychotherapist for an eating disorder, but it didn’t go beyond the first session. We weren't right for each other, that's how it happens. But then I was demotivated: I thought that all therapists are the same and I couldn’t find a better one. Also a kind of cognitive distortion.

I met my current psychotherapist a year later. I searched on the specialized website, went through the options, called everyone personally - I completely trusted my intuition, and not the recommendations of my friends. The best advice: do not go to the first number, but communicate in person, at least on the phone, study the information (diplomas, qualifications) and understand whether the specialist is attractive to you. This is difficult internal work, but the result is worth it.

The most interesting things begin in the office - at four consultation (introduction) meetings and directly during psychotherapy.

What is psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a theory founded by Sigmund Freud, as well as a method for eliminating psychological problems.
When developing the theory, the famous Austrian psychotherapist used many years of experience gained during his medical practice.

So, what do the basic principles of psychoanalysis say?:

Conflicts between the conscious and unconscious can lead to neuroses, fears, depression and other mental disorders.
A person’s experience, knowledge and behavior are formed on the basis of his irrational unconscious drives.
An individual trying to realize these drives “turns on” defense mechanisms that interfere with the process of awareness.
The influence of the unconscious can be neutralized through its awareness. Psychoanalysis is a therapy that involves solving a problem.

The key idea of psychoanalysis comes down to the statement that a person is not aware of his own motives for behavior - they need interpretation. According to Freud's classical psychoanalysis, the patient should voice all his thoughts, associations, and dreams. The task of a psychoanalyst is to analyze what he hears.

Sources

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History of psychoanalysis

The history of psychoanalysis dates back to 1880, in the days when the Viennese physician J. Breuer shared with his comrade S. Freud a remarkable story about a patient who was cured of the symptoms of hysteria after a hypnosis session. At the reception, she was able to voice a deeply traumatic event that happened to her. The result was a strong emotional reaction. Catharsis resulted in a significant reduction in symptoms. When the patient emerged from the hypnosis state, she had no memory of her confessions.

Freud decided to apply the technique with his patients - Breuer's results were confirmed. The partners shared their findings in a joint publication, Research on Hysteria, arguing that the symptoms of hysteria are caused by repressed memories of traumatic events. The difficult situation is repressed from consciousness, but continues to influence the patient.

Personal reasons prompted Breuer to withdraw from research and Freud began independent work. He was able to discover that a similar result is achieved not only with hysteria, but also with obsessive states of a sexual nature, often arising in childhood.

The psychoanalyst initially considered the Oedipus complex to be the key cause of neuroses. The symptom begins to form at moments when the child’s unconscious drives threaten to break through the barrier set by repression, which turns out to be unacceptable for other parts of the psyche due to fear of punishment and for moral reasons.

On the origin of neuroses and depression

Upbringing

represents a series of inevitable traumas for the child.
At the same time, the child is traumatized by the most significant people for him, whom he loves and who are authorities for him - these are parents, educators, teachers. To save his love for them and their authority, the child forgets about his traumas (see repression
).
And these difficult feelings associated with these traumas continue to exist in our unconscious, gradually poisoning our lives (see Survive in order to forget
).

Just as a leg broken in childhood can then hurt throughout life and cause lameness, childhood injuries also cause a series of chronic failures in life, neurosis and depression, but the cause of mental pain has already been forgotten.

Basics of psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a therapy based on several immutable principles:

First of all, the principle of determinism is implied. According to the ideas of psychoanalysis, not a single manifestation of the psyche can be called random, unrelated to anything, or involuntary. Conscious feelings, thoughts, impulses should be considered as events of cause-and-effect interactions determined by early childhood experience. Special research methods (mainly through dream analysis and associations) reveal the connection between situations from the past and current psychological experience.
The basis of the second principle was the topographical approach. All mental elements are assessed according to the criteria of their accessibility. Repression, which ensures the removal of certain psychological elements from consciousness, indicates that a certain part of the psyche is making efforts without wanting to realize them.
The third dynamic principle is based on the theory that the psyche is driven to action by impulses of aggression and sexuality, which are elements of a common biological heritage. They have significant differences from the instinctive behavior of animals. In the animal world, a stereotypical response is usually recorded, provoked by special stimuli in certain situations and aimed at survival. Psychoanalysis considers attraction as a state of nervous excitement, which is a response to stimuli that direct the psyche to action and relieve tension.
The fourth principle is the genetic approach. The personality traits of an adult, characterizing his conflicts and neurotic symptoms, are generally associated with the fantasies and desires of childhood. It is believed that no matter what paths open to a person, he will not be able to escape from his own childhood experiences - in any case, they will haunt him throughout his life.

Methods of psychoanalysis

Let us consider in detail the main methods used in the field of psychoanalysis: the method of dream interpretation, the method of free association, the method of interpretation. Let's describe each one separately.

Free association method

What is this famous method based on? On the use of the phenomenon of associative thinking in order to study deep mental phenomena and processes (often they are unconscious). The data obtained are used for the treatment and correction of functional mental disorders, with the help of the patient’s awareness of the nature and source of the problems.

What is special about the free association method? In a conscious joint and purposeful confrontation between the therapist and the patient with a state of psychological discomfort. Acting together, the psychoanalyst and the patient cope with the problem.

The method of free association can be called a method for studying the mental state of a patient. He talks about any thoughts that come into his head, no matter how absurd or inappropriate they may seem. They may sound fantastic, ordinary, obscene. The therapist has to draw a conclusion from these revelations or incoherent fragments of thoughts.

In the “Dictionary of Psychoanalysis” (J.B. Pontalis, J. Laplanche) it is noted that free associations can be called the expression of all indiscriminately ideas and thoughts that arise in the mind - spontaneously or starting from any element (number, word, image from a dream).

Freud called for abandoning the role of controlled consciousness, beginning to understand mental processes. He stated that consciousness tries to eliminate images and thoughts that appear on the periphery before the attention of the analyzing object is focused on them. Moreover, when analyzing the mental state, it is these images and thoughts that can carry special meaning.

It was Freud who first began to actively use the method of free association. The psychoanalyst suggested that his patients lie down on the couch and relax, simply saying whatever came to their mind, no matter how incredible, absurd and unusual these thoughts were from the point of view of usual moral standards. During the sessions, the therapist observed how powerful emotional drives led uncontrolled thinking to mental conflict. The famous psychotherapist stated that the first random image and thought implies exactly what is needed for psychoanalysis. A random thought may have a connection to a repressed memory.

Dream interpretation method

According to the theories of Sigmund Freud, dreams can reveal the presence of intense mental activity in the depths of consciousness. What is dream analysis? The therapist must find the distorted unconscious truth hidden in every dream. Freud was convinced: the stranger and more confusing the dream, the more hidden content it contains. In the language of psychoanalysis, this phenomenon is called resistance - its manifestations can be noticed even when the person who saw the dream does not agree to its interpretation. This speaks of his unconscious resistance, established barriers to protect his own psyche.

Dreams separate the unconscious from the real world. In them, exciting situations that cause emotions are deformed in the most bizarre way. Dreams can also tell about secret desires. In the case of child psychoanalysis, the differences between hidden and overt thoughts are less clear.

Hidden thoughts are transformed into symbols, appearing in a form acceptable to consciousness. This allows them to bypass certain "censorship". Even today, the manifestation of the unconscious in the form of dreams remains one of the greatest mysteries of consciousness.

The method of dream interpretation is very important - it allows you to identify the essence of the images that appear in a dream. Freud processed dreams by positioning them as symptoms of illness. According to him, for the correct use of this method, it is not recommended to consider dreams as something single - such an analysis will not lead to anything worthwhile. He was convinced: when analyzing dreams, it is necessary to painstakingly study its elements separately. The association rule should be applied to individual fragments. Freud considered any dream not only an object worthy of scientific research, but also a way to know one’s deep essence, to discover hidden desires that do not appear on the surface.

Interpretation method

Interpretation is considered one of the most important tools of any analyst. Even in the interpretation of dreams and free associations, interpretations are used by the therapist. What does this term mean?

Interpretation is called the main analytical tool. In dream interpretation and free association, the psychoanalyst attempts to use interpretations. We are talking about transferring significant information about the patient from the unconscious level to the conscious level. Repressing information that causes concern and anxiety in an individual, as well as its correct analysis, will soften the symptoms of neurosis or other mental problems.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THERAPY

Psychoanalytic therapy is both a research method and a treatment method. It is carried out under certain standard conditions, called the “psychoanalytic situation”. The patient is asked to lie down on the couch, face away from the therapist, and tell the therapist in detail and honestly about all the thoughts, images, and feelings that come to mind. The psychoanalyst listens to the patient without criticizing or expressing his own judgments. According to the principle of mental determinism, each element of thinking or behavior is observed and evaluated in the context of what is being told. The personality of the psychoanalyst himself, his values and judgments are completely excluded from the therapeutic interaction. This organization of the psychoanalytic situation creates conditions under which the patient’s thoughts and images can emerge from very deep layers of the psyche. They arise as a result of the constant internal dynamic pressure of drives that give rise to unconscious fantasies (dreams, free associations, etc.). As a result, what was previously repressed is verbalized and can be studied. Since the psychoanalytic situation is not complicated by the influence of ordinary interpersonal relationships, the interaction of the three components of the psyche - Ego, Id and Super-Ego - is studied more objectively; this makes it possible to show the patient what exactly in his behavior is determined by unconscious desires, conflicts and fantasies, and what by more mature ways of responding.

The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to replace stereotypical, automated ways of responding to anxiety and fears with objective, reasonable judgment. The most important part of therapy is related to the interpretation of the patient's reactions to the psychotherapist himself. During treatment, the patient's perception of the psychoanalyst and the demands placed on him often becomes inadequate and unrealistic. This phenomenon is known as “transfer” or “transfer”. It represents the patient's unconscious recovery of a new version of forgotten childhood memories and repressed unconscious fantasies. The patient transfers his unconscious childhood desires to the psychoanalyst. Transference is understood as a form of memory in which repetition in action replaces the recollection of the past and in which the reality of the present is misinterpreted in terms of a forgotten past. In this regard, transference is a repetition in miniature of the neurotic process.

Psychoanalysis in psychology and philosophy

One can hear many general statements about psychoanalysis. It is usually noted that psychoanalysis is a well-known direction in psychology, the benefits and significance of which are assessed differently. The method has both supporters and opponents.

If we talk about psychoanalysis in a philosophical vein, it is noted that a feature of psychoanalytic concepts is their connection with psychotherapeutic practice. It is not reduced to either experimental knowledge or philosophical speculation, but grows from the experience of communication and other aspects. Real comprehension of your inner world is achieved through insight. Such insight brings changes to the patient’s life - he begins to think about himself and his beliefs in a completely different way.

This philosophy is somewhat similar to ancient teachings that combined the theory and practice of Zen Buddhism, yoga and other types of mental self-regulation.

The practice of psychoanalysis is periodically compared with the healing actions of priests and shamans. Training in psychoanalysis is equated to initiation. It is no coincidence that many famous analysts who practice psychoanalysis simultaneously show interest in various Eastern teachings and even magic.

Most adherents of Freud's theories, as before, adhere to the model of the human psyche that was supported by the “father of psychoanalysis.” Their beliefs are based on the fact that psychoanalysts usually receive psychological or medical training. Their task is to adapt the patient to surrounding circumstances. To a large extent, psychoanalysis is widespread in America and the most developed European countries.

At one time, Sigmund Freud still hoped that his theories of psychoanalysis would be recognized by the scientific community. For this purpose, he resorted to analogies with archeology, hydraulics, economics and other sciences. Gradually, the conviction began to grow stronger in him that this would not happen after all.

The first reason can be called the difference in approaches, and the second is that for scientists, whose formation took place in the scientific fields of the nineteenth century, psychoanalysis is an unacceptable aspect for personal reasons. The ideas of therapy ran counter to narcissistic illusions about the power of the mind over nature and oneself. In general, the frequency with which many representatives of science and philosophy condemned the principles of psychoanalysis indicates their obvious bias. Gradually these beliefs began to change.

Today, the scientific status of psychoanalysis periodically continues to be challenged. Some researchers are inclined to think that it is still scientific, others question this statement, calling the well-known therapy pseudoscience.

However, in the twentieth century, psychoanalysis became widespread in the humanities, psychology, philosophy and other fields.

Freud's theory of psychoanalysis: briefly

According to Freud's theory, the human psyche can be “divided” into the following components: Ego, Id and Superego.

Definition of terms:

The id is the main source of drive and desire. As an analogy, we can cite an ordinary street dog, where all its actions, such as mating, sleeping, etc., are the result of instincts inherent in nature.
The ego is a mediator that divides social frameworks and animal instincts. The part of the personality that satisfies the needs of the id, taking into account the limitations of the external world.
The superego implies all social frameworks, starting with the period of parental education, when the foundations are laid for what can be done and what is unacceptable. In adult life, it is reflected in all aspects of life, such as morality, religion, law.

The topical model of the mental apparatus includes two elements: the unconscious and the conscious.

What do they mean:

The unconscious is psychic forces that are below the level of consciousness. They determine how a person behaves.
Conscious is a mental aspect that an individual is able to become aware of. Consciousness has a direct impact on how an individual positions himself in society. The psyche can automatically be corrected by the pleasure principle. If the balance is disturbed, then a reset occurs through the unconscious sphere.

Defense mechanisms realize the conflict between the Superego and the Id. Freud described many of them: isolation, projection, repression, denial, substitution, regression and so on.

Classic psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud

Having begun to develop a new approach to the treatment of mental problems, Freud initiated his own research and studied the data of other scientists. Nowadays the theory of psychoanalysis is considered truly unique. What distinguishes her from others is that she does not undertake to study individual problems of an individual. Psychoanalysis looks at everything in its entirety. We suggest that you briefly familiarize yourself with the main provisions of therapy.

Classical psychoanalysis is based on the determinism of the biological component - on the assertion that physiological needs suppress all others and indicate their vector. Mental determinism indicates that any incident in a person’s life has its consequences. Each of his actions is determined by an obvious or hidden motive, which was preceded by certain events.

Several aspects of an individual’s mental life are distinguished: conscious, preconscious, unconscious. In the first case, we are talking about experiences and current thoughts, in the second – about secret desires and fantasies, in the third – about what stands out from consciousness, suppressed by the internal censor. Freud believed that psychology should be interested in this complex mechanism in detail.

Followers of Freud.

After the First World War, psychoanalysis not only revolutionized the entire psychiatry and psychotherapy, but also introduced a lot of new things into the study of man and his motivational sphere. Psychoanalytic concepts such as “Freudian slips,” “rationalization,” “sublimation,” “repression,” “ambivalence,” and “substitution” have even entered everyday language (see also PSYCHOLOGY).

Some of Freud's early students, most notably Carl Jung (1875–1961) and Alfred Adler (1870–1937), used psychoanalysis as a starting point for developing their own psychological concepts. Jung interpreted the nature of drives in many ways differently than Freud. In addition to the personal conflicts of the individual, culturally determined and unconsciously transmitted symbolic representations of the main “themes” of human existence are important. According to his concept, at the center of individual experience are constantly emerging mythological themes common to all humanity. At the heart of all struggling tendencies in a person’s life are archetypal (primary) images that conflict with each other. Jung's idea of transmitting unconscious fantasies through the collective unconscious seemed purely theoretical and even mystical to Freud and his followers (see JUNG, CARL GUSTAV).

Alfred Adler believed that Freudian psychoanalysis underestimates the role of social factors, emphasizing the primacy of sexual desires. He associated the causes of individual conflicts with more superficial factors, especially feelings of inferiority and a sense of uncertainty about one’s social status, physical abilities, or sexual capabilities. Many of Adler’s ideas contributed to the further development of the concepts of self-esteem and especially to the analysis of its violations in the so-called. narcissistic personality disorders (see ADLER, ALFRED).

Otto Rank (1884–1939) was amazed by the discoveries that were made during research on the negative consequences of separation of a child from his mother. He developed Freud's hypothesis about birth trauma as a prototype of an anxious situation and proposed a system of psychotherapy based on overcoming separation trauma. Rank considered the will to be the decisive factor in the relationship between patient and psychoanalyst, and his system of psychotherapy is known as will therapy (see RANK, OTTO).

Psychoanalysis of modern times

Sigmund Freud was convinced that all our actions are dictated by subconscious desires. Particular emphasis was placed on the fact that emerging needs are based on physiology and sexual desires. Modern psychology no longer focuses on this and does not pay too much attention to the statement.

How widespread is psychoanalysis today? In many countries it is quite developed, being quite an ordinary phenomenon. Many modern therapists write books on this topic, which are very popular - that is, it is in demand. Of course, a certain type of society has long resisted the principles of psychoanalysis, not accepting them. This can be said about Germany during the period of National Socialism and the USSR before the Brezhnev stagnation. These examples are the most obvious. Both the fascist and communist regimes opposed Freud's teachings on ideological grounds. The Germans considered these theories “Jewish science that degrades human dignity,” and the Soviet Union considered these theories “the apotheosis of bourgeois individualism.”

Both hidden attempts to oust the teaching from the life of society and obvious repressions against it are known. It is worth recognizing that psychoanalysis also runs counter to many religion-centered and theocratic societies. Although there are cases when it was successfully developed in countries with authoritarian political regimes. The most obvious example is Argentina. According to the assumption of the Argentine psychotherapist A. Benjamin, the reason is that it was the psychologist’s office that usually became the last refuge for oppressed citizens, where freedom of speech was not prohibited.

To summarize, the conclusion suggests itself that freedom is considered the main condition for the successful development of psychoanalysis in society. Let us clarify that in this case, society should share the value of freedom, it should demonstrate the real implementation of freedoms (personality, speech, thought). By the way, for the full development of psychoanalysis, freedom of association is required, which makes it possible for the corresponding community to take shape.

In general, psychoanalysis is quite common in modern society. Various trainings are conducted, therapeutic rooms operate, and relevant literature is published.