Aspects of communication in psychology - Communicative, interactive, perceptual aspects of communication

The sides of communication are closely interconnected. In total, there are three aspect aspects of the communication interaction of individuals, namely communicative, perceptual and interactive. The boundaries between such sides of communication are quite symbolic and often merge, complementing each other. The aspects of communication in psychology should be considered from the perspective of joint activity and as a special activity. Communication interaction is a unique structural model containing two aspects: content and formal. The substantive aspect of interaction is reflected in the communicative function of communication, and the formal aspect in the behavioral side of communication, which is realized during the interaction.

Three aspects of communication

The sides of the communication process are closely interconnected.
Often the boundaries between them are quite symbolic and one side can merge with the other, complementing it.

In psychology, there are three key aspects of communication:

• communicative _ There is a direct exchange of information between the participants in the interaction. The main way of communication is speech. With the help of speech, people share judgments and points of view, discuss problems, resolve issues;
• perceptual _ At the cognitive level, the process of people perceiving each other occurs. During a conversation, a judgment is formed about the interlocutor, which is based on consideration of his appearance, facial expressions, voice gestures, and actions;
• interactive _ Direct formation of joint activities of subjects. The relationship between the parties to the interaction is determined on the basis of the actions and actions that they perform at a given stage of time.

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Structure of communication in psychology

When communicating, the social relationship of people to each other is realized. During the exchange of information, each person is rooted as a full member of society. The concept of “communication” is a complex form of interaction, therefore, in order to understand its essence, it is necessary to study its components:

• communication;
• interaction;
• social perception.

The diagram shows that each part is responsible for one of the sides of communication.

Scheme

The communicative side of speech

Definition 1

Communication is a type of active interaction between objects of any nature, which involves information exchange.

Communication between people is distinguished by the following specific features:

• Firstly, it undoubtedly must contain two individuals, each of whom is an active subject. At the same time, their mutual information implies the organization of joint activities.
• Secondly, it must contain the possibility of mutual influence of partners on each other through the concept of signs. In other words, the exchange of information in this case implies an influence on the behavior of the interlocutor and a change in the state of the participants in the communication process.
• Thirdly, influence in communication can only be exercised if there is a unified concept of decodification and codification between the communicator (the person who sends information) and the recipient (the person who receives it).
• Fourth, communication barriers are always likely to arise. In this case, the connection that exists between attitude and communication is clearly visible.

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The model of the communication process, as a rule, contains five components: communicator - message (text) - channel - audience - feedback.

Definition 2

The communication side is a way of psychologically influencing the interlocutor. During the period of information transfer, one person influences another. The better a subject’s communication skills are developed, the higher the degree of influence he has on his own interlocutors.

Information is provided on two levels:

1. Incentive. These are remarks of a pleading, commanding, recommendatory nature. They are expressed with the task of stimulating a person to perform some action.
2. Stater. Speech at this level is of a notification nature, which is aimed at providing any information. Ranges from indifferent presentation to active persuasion.

Structure and functions of communication

Communication structure. Communication, as a rule, manifests itself in the unity of its five sides: interpersonal, cognitive, communicative-informative, emotional and behavioral.

The interpersonal side of communication reflects a person’s interaction with his immediate environment: with other people and communities with whom he is connected in his life. First of all, it is the family and professional groups that use the established cultural, historical and professional models of behavior. Along with these behavioral models, a person learns national-ethnic, social-age, emotional-aesthetic and other norms and stereotypes of communication.

The cognitive side of communication allows you to answer questions about who the interlocutor is, what kind of person he is, what to expect from him and many other questions related to the personality of the partner. It includes not only the perception of another, but also self-knowledge. Thus, in the process of communication, figurative ideas about oneself and about the partner are formed, which regulate this process.

The communicative and informational side of communication is an exchange between people with different perceptions, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc. If all this is considered as information, then the communication process can be understood as a process of information exchange. But this approach to human communication is very simplified.

The emotional side of communication refers to the functioning of emotions, feelings, and moods in personal contact between partners. They manifest themselves in the expressive movements of the subjects of communication, their actions, deeds, and behavior. Through them, relationships are formed, which become a kind of socio-psychological background of interaction and predetermine greater or lesser success of joint activities.

The behavioral side of communication serves to harmonize internal and external contradictions in the positions of partners. It has a controlling influence on the individual in all processes of life, reveals a person’s desire for certain values, expresses the driving forces of a person, and regulates relations between partners in joint activities.

The psychological structure of communication includes four components:

The motive-logical component is a system of motives and goals of communication. The motives for communication between members can be:

• Needs, interests of the person who takes the initiative in communication;
• the needs and interests of both communication partners in order to encourage them to communicate;
• Needs arising from jointly solved problems.
• Psychology of Verbal Communication

Correlation of communication motives from complete agreement to conflict. In accordance with this, communication can be friendly or conflicting in nature.

The main goals of communication can be: obtaining or transmitting useful information, activating partners, reducing tension and guiding joint actions. The goals of communication participants may coincide, contradict or exclude each other. The nature of communication also depends on this.

The communicative component of communication in the narrow sense of the word is the exchange of information between communicating persons. In the course of joint activities, as mentioned above, individuals exchange different opinions, interests, feelings, and so on. All this represents a process of information exchange, which is characterized by the following features:

If in cybernetic devices information is only transmitted, then in human communication it is not only transmitted, but also formulated, clarified, and developed;

Unlike simply “sharing information” between two devices, in human communication it involves relating to each other;

The nature of the exchange of information between people is determined by the fact that partners can influence each other through the symbols of the system, used in this case to influence the behavior of the partner;

Communicative influence through information exchange is possible only if the one who sends the information (communicator) and the one who receives it (recipient) have a common or similar encoding or decoding system. In everyday language this means that people "speak the same language."

The interactive component of communication consists of the exchange of not only knowledge and ideas, but also influences, mutual incentives, and actions. Interaction can take the form of cooperation or competition, agreement or conflict, adaptation or opposition, unification or disunion.

The perceptual component of communication is manifested in the perception of communication partners, mutual study and evaluation of each other. This is due to the perception of a person’s appearance, actions, and actions and their interpretation. Mutual social perception in communication is very subjective, which is not always manifested in a correct understanding of the goals of the communication partner, his motives, attitudes, attitude towards interaction, etc.

Communication functions. Communication performs certain functions. There are six of them:

1. the pragmatic function of communication reflects its necessity-motivation and is realized in the interaction of people in the process of joint activity. In this process, communication itself is often the most important need.
2. the function of education and development reflects the ability of communication to influence partners, as well as to develop and improve them in all respects. By communicating with other people, a person learns universal experience, historically established social norms, values, knowledge and methods of action, and is formed as a person. In a broad sense, communication can be defined as the universal reality in which human mental processes, states and behavior are born, exist and manifest throughout life.
3. the affirmation function allows people to recognize, affirm, and validate themselves.
4. the function of association-dissociation of people, on the one hand, by establishing contacts between them, facilitates the transfer of necessary information to each other and sets them up for the implementation of common goals, intentions, tasks, thereby uniting them into a single whole, and on the other hand, can contribute to differentiation and isolation of individuals as a result of communication.
5. the function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships serves the interests of establishing and maintaining fairly stable and productive connections, contacts and relationships of people in the interests of their joint activities.
6. The intrapersonal function of communication is realized in a person’s communication with himself (through internal or external speech, which is carried out depending on the type of dialogue). This communication can be considered as a universal form of human thought.

The interactive side of communication

When communicating, changes in people's behavior appear. There are many options for shaping the situation. The main types of interaction include:

• cooperation, in which goals are achieved through joint efforts;
• competition (one infringes on the other on the way to achieving the goal);
• confrontation, which is characteristic of the pursuit of opposing objectives in communication;
• corporation with mutual benefit (“you - to me, I - to you”).

To have an impact, the interlocutor often resorts to one of positive or negative practices. A particularly optimal and constructive approach is persuasion, in which the object conveys information with reliable evidence and facts.

Note 1

The interactive side is directly related to the social roles that are characteristic of the subjects of interaction. Society imposes certain obligations on a person that he must fulfill.

Multiple rituals and rules are aimed at regulating the behavior of subjects who intelligently exercise control over their own actions and actions.

The scale of social norms on which the concept of interactive communication operates is quite large.

These include models of behavior determined by the norms of work discipline, military duties, concepts of dignity and honor, and simple rules of upbringing and politeness.

The approved model of behavior in which a person strives to conform depends on his personal traits: age, gender, responsibilities, social status. Thus, a medical worker is expected to show concern and attention, and a waiter is expected to be polite and helpful.

If, during interactive communication with people around him, a person sees approval of his actions, he can judge the coordination of his behavior with the social role he is realizing.

If there is a misunderstanding with members of society, then the individual may conclude that his actions do not meet the expectations that are accepted in this society.

Bottom line

From childhood, a person learns speech, which allows him to more quickly and easily convey his thoughts, objections and ideas. However, in the process of communication there are many hidden aspects that must be realized by a person in order to interact more deeply and accurately with others.

In the process of communication, it remains important to understand both the interlocutor himself and his messages that he conveyed to the person. If everything is perceived correctly, then the person will have no questions left. He will understand everything very clearly and clearly for himself, without any guesses and conjectures, which are often erroneous.

2.2. Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication is a system of nonverbal symbols, signs, codes used to convey a message with a high degree of accuracy, which is to one degree or another alienated and independent of the psychological and socio-psychological qualities of the individual. Ph.D. has a fairly clear range of meanings and can be described as a linguistic sign system. Conventional, intentional, arbitrary gestures, body movements, postures, facial expressions are encoded and decoded, act as signs that have a limited range of meanings, and perform the functions of a message.

Nonverbal communication, based on the means of presenting information, can be divided into kinesthetics, para- and extralinguistics, proxemics and “eye contact” (visual communication).

Kinesthetics is a type of nonverbal communication based on the perception of general motor skills of various parts of the human body. If we mainly mean hands, then this is gesticulation (sign language). If we mean facial muscles, then this is facial expressions. If there is a person’s posture, then this is pantomime (body language).

General motor skills of various parts of the body (gestures, facial expressions, pantomime) reflect a person’s emotional reactions. However, it should be borne in mind that the use of the same kinesthetic techniques (gestures, postures, facial expressions, etc.) in different folk cultures may have different interpretations. For example, the V-shaped sign with the fingers in many countries means the number 2. In most European countries, this sign means “Victory!” – it doesn’t matter whether the palm is turned towards yourself or towards the viewer. There are many such examples of different interpretations of certain gestures in different national cultures.

Paralinguistics is a vocalization system (voice timbre, range, tonality, etc.).

Extralinguistics is a system that determines the rate of speech and includes “additions” to verbal information (rate of speech, pauses, coughing, crying, laughter, etc.).

Proxemics is the field of spatial and temporal organization of communication. The founder of proxemics, E. Hall, proposed a method for assessing the intimacy of communication based on studying the organization of its space. Thus, the dimensions of a person’s personal spatial territory (meaning the norms of a person’s closeness to a communication partner, characteristic of American culture) are: intimate zone – 15–46 cm; personal zone – 46-120 cm; social zone – 1.2–3.6 m; public area – more than 3.6 m.

Bibliography

1. Akishina A.A., Kano H.g. Akishina T.E. Gestures and facial expressions in Russian speech. Linguistic and regional dictionary. M., 1991. – 144 p.
2. Bodalev A.A. Personality in communication. – M., 1983. – 271 p.
3. Gorelov I.N. Nonverbal components of communication. M, 1980. – 238 p.
4. Grigorieva T.G., Linskaya L.V., Usoltseva T.P. Fundamentals of constructive communication: Method. manual for teachers. — Novosibirsk; M.: Novosibirsk Publishing House. university; Perfection, 1997. - 171 p.
5. Konetskaya V.P. Sociology of communication. - M., 2006. - 304 p.
6. Labunskaya V. A. Introduction to the psychology of nonverbal behavior. Rostov-on-Don, 2004 - 415 p.
7. Leontyev A.A. Psychology of communication. 3rd ed. - M.: Smysl, 1999. - p. 252.
8. Lisina M.I. Problems of ontogenesis of communication. - M.: Pedagogy, 1986. - 144 p.
9. General psychology: Textbook for teachers. Institute / Ed. A. V. Petrovsky, M. Progress 1980. - 422 p.
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Chapter 3. Interaction of verbal and non-verbal means of transmitting information

The purposeful study of the interaction of verbal and nonverbal means of communication dates back to the heyday of oratory in ancient Rome (II-I centuries BC). Cicero believed that all the feelings of the speaker should be “expressed, or rather, burned on his own face.” In the 1st century BC. oratory theorist Quintilian developed a theory of gesture, facial expressions, posture, as well as rules for the movement of shoulders, arms and head, breathing and voice of the speaker.

Both verbal and non-verbal means are signs by their nature; they perform the basic functions of communication - informational, pragmatic and expressive. But if verbal signs are predominantly conventional symbols, that is, unmotivated and indicate the realities of reality, then non-verbal signs, in particular, gestures and facial expressions, for the most part are indexical signs, unmotivated and signal feelings, emotions, evaluative attitudes, for example, frowning eyebrows signal dissatisfaction, disagreement, doubt, etc.

There are also much more complex phonation means, expressed in the personal characteristics and emotional states of the speaker - timbre, tempo, sonority or dullness, strength, pitch, monotony of the voice and others. Phonation means are most closely related to verbal means - in fact, they “voice” words in a speech context, give utterances communicative completeness and expressiveness, and this is the difficulty of identifying their own functions. These include:

- social-informational - with the help of accents and other pronunciation features, signs of the social status of communicants, demographic characteristics and evaluative orientation are updated;

- evaluative - expressed using logical stress and tone (in this case, the verbal expression of evaluation may not correspond to the tone intentionally or unintentionally);

- emotive - expressed using volume, height of voice, pause,

sigh, tempo, and also with the help of vocalizers - non-verbalized sounds

like “mm-mm”, “uh”, “um”;

- regulating - is expressed with the help of pauses, signaling the beginning, continuation or completion of a statement, the expectation of a response.

It is difficult to clearly determine which functions are assigned to a given phonation device, because in most cases their components are used simultaneously, for example, tone and characteristic properties of the voice. But the natural properties of the voice have a subjective interpretation, as well as tempo. The most “loaded” in functional terms is the tone, which is capable of conveying various signs of evaluative information. It is noted that the emotions of fear and anger are better recognized by tone, but feelings such as love and sadness, pride and satisfaction are poorly distinguished. Within the framework of an utterance, verbal and phonation means function synchronously, and this determines their close interaction in the interpretation of semantic and evaluative information.

Kinesics, including facial expressions, are used in three basic functions, within which various particular functions are actualized. Information functions include: messages about someone or something (the thumb and middle fingers raised up form the initial letter of the English word Victory “Victory”, the palm should be turned towards the audience), messages about the properties of someone or something or (widely spaced palms showing large size, thumbs up indicating high quality), messages about actions (roll up sleeves before starting an action, work), indicating the location of someone or something (indicate as appropriate finger direction, head movement, gaze).

The following particular functions have a pragmatic orientation:

1. Establishing contact (using gaze); establishing feedback;

2. Self-presentation (stand with your arms crossed over your chest as a sign of your independence);

3. Social orientation;

4. Incentive (to silence with a glance, to call for silence with the clap of palms);

5. Regulatory (look indicating the beginning and end of a statement, hand gestures) Expressive functions include:

6. Emphatic (raising the index finger emphasizes the importance of information, waving the finger from side to side emphasizes categorical disagreement or denial of something);

7. Emotive (using facial expressions, gaze, various gestures and postures, various feelings and emotions are demonstrated);

8. Adaptive (gestures and body movements, often unconscious, expressing embarrassment, nervousness, doubt, etc.).

Unlike phonation devices, kinemes can function independently. Autonomous functioning of nonverbal means takes place in three cases: when it is not possible to use verbal means (the interlocutor is at a far distance, noise interference, communication in underwater conditions, etc.), when for some reason it is impossible to use speech to transmit information and in conditions of adaptation to a tense situation (unconscious use of gestures and some components of gaze - pupil dilation, blink rate, etc.

Gestures, in addition to (self) adapters and iconic ones, often function in close interaction with verbal means. In related functioning, gestures can be used: a) synchronously, simultaneously with verbal means, b) preceding verbal means and c) following them.

Thus, the simultaneous use of verbal and nonverbal means is determined by the desire to specify information, make it more expressive and meaningful in order to influence the interlocutor. Despite the fact that in related use non-verbal means occupy the “secondary plane” of communication, they perform the function of influence with greater efficiency.