Gippenreiter Yu.B. GENERAL VIEW OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

The place of psychology in the system of human sciences

The methodological basis of psychology is philosophy and anatomy and physiology.

The basis of psychology is general psychology.

Modern psychology is closely connected with many sciences, occupying an “intermediate position between the philosophical sciences, on the one hand, the natural sciences, on the other, and the social sciences, on the third.

This is explained by the fact that the center of her attention always remains a person, whom the above-mentioned sciences also study, but in other aspects.

According to the classification of sciences by Academician A. Kedrov, psychology occupies a central place not only as a product of all other sciences, but also as a possible source of explanation for their formation and development.

Psychology integrates all these data from the sciences, and in turn influences them, becoming a general model of human knowledge. There is a close connection between psychology and literature, poetry, music and other types of arts that express the essence and characteristics of the human soul and personality.

The main categories of psychology: psyche, consciousness, personality, activity, communication.

The basis of psychology is general psychology. Modern psychology is closely connected with many sciences, occupying... This is explained by the fact that the center of its attention always remains the person whom the above-mentioned are studying...

Current problems of modern psychology: age aspect and pedagogy

There are quite a lot of problems considered by modern psychology, but not all of them and do not always concern individual people. Only a few aspects of psychological science seriously affect the minds of the lion's share of the planet's inhabitants. One of them is the upbringing of a new generation, instilling in its representatives moral, ethical and other norms without erasing valuable individual characteristics and personal differences between individuals.

Age and crisis phenomena

If we touch upon the problems of developmental psychology, the specifics of mental development at each stage of life, the metamorphoses with priorities and life attitudes that occur at this time, become particularly important. Psychologists usually raise the topic of crises of a certain age, which, when creating favorable conditions, can play a creative role in personal formation. Such a crisis phenomenon is aimed at mastering new skills or social roles: defining the boundaries of freedom, the concept of duty, the ability to think critically, integrating into society, summing up what has already been achieved.

Educational measures and development

The main problems of educational psychology are interconnected with the previous factors influencing the development of personality. Psychologists and teachers realize the importance of teaching young members of society new knowledge, taking into account the characteristics of mental development. They try to time the use of certain educational and educational measures during sensitive periods, when the body becomes especially sensitive to specific types of external influence: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, etc. Specialists take into account the different degrees of giftedness of children and their readiness for learning, including school education.

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The subject of psychology, its tasks

Psychology is the science of facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche, as an image of objective reality that develops in the brain, on the basis of which the behavior and activities of a person, which have a personal character, are controlled.

The subject of psychology research is facts, patterns, mechanisms of the psyche.

Tasks of psychology:

-learn to understand the essence of mental phenomena and their patterns;

-learn to manage them;

-use the acquired knowledge to improve the efficiency of those

branches of practice, at the intersection with which lie established

sciences and industries;

-be the theoretical basis for the practice of psychological services.

Subject studies of psychology - facts, patterns, mechanisms of the psyche. Objectives of psychology: -learn to understand the essence of mental phenomena and their patterns;

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Psychology - the science of the soul

... the origin of the human psyche. The idea of ​​the emergence of the psyche in psychology The answer to the question about the moment of the emergence of the psyche should also determine the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe psyche as a whole: the definition of the concept of “psyche”, the criteria for its difference from “non-psyche” and how...

The problem of man in psychology: personal aspect

The main object of interest of representatives of this science is the problem of personality, which is studied in various fields in psychology. Personality is considered by psychologists mainly from a social perspective, without taking into account the biological component of human essence. The formation of personality - a multi-level system of psychological characteristics - is influenced by many factors, especially the historical basis, the environment, and the moral and ethical attitudes existing in society. What comes out of a particular person depends on his own strong-willed qualities, ability to resist or succumb to circumstances.

Many pressing problems in psychology remain unresolved due to the lack of consensus. Representatives of different branches of psychological science have not yet come to an agreement on answers to the following questions:

• what age is critical for personality formation;
• what prevails in its structure - the unconscious or the conscious (rational);
• to what extent a person is able to control his own behavior, whether he has free will;
• what and in what proportions a personality is made up of - innate or acquired qualities and properties.

Features of psychology as a science

1. Materialistic philosophers of antiquity Democritus, Lucretius, Epicurus

understood the human soul as a type of matter, as a bodily

education.

2. Plato understood the human soul as something divine, different from

body.3. The great philosopher Aristotle in his treatise “On the Soul” highlighted psychology

as a unique area of ​​knowledge and first put forward the idea of ​​inseparability

soul and living body.

4. The main stages of the development of psychology:

Stage I - psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. They tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life by the presence of a soul.

Stage II - psychology as a science of consciousness. Appears in the 17th century. in connection with the development of natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire was called consciousness. The main method of study was a person's observation of himself and the description of facts.

Stage III - psychology as a science of behavior. Appears in the 20th century.

The task of psychology is to set up experiments and observe what can be directly seen, namely human behavior, actions, and reactions (the motives causing the actions were not taken into account).

Stage IV - psychology as a science that studies objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche.

5. The history of psychology as an experimental science begins in 1879

founded in Leipzig by the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, the first

world of experimental psychological laboratory.

In 1885, Bekhterev V.M. organized a similar laboratory in Russia.

6. The word “psychology” is formed from two Greek words “psyche” (soul) and “logos” (teaching, science), it first appeared in the 17th century in the work of the German philosopher Christian Wolf.

understood the human soul as a type of matter, as a bodily formation. 2. Plato understood the human soul as something divine, different from

Foreign theories

1. Structuralism - W. Wundt, E. Titchener (division of consciousness into separate

elements).

2. Functionalism - F. Galton, W. James, D. Dewey (mental functioning)

3. Behaviorism - E.L. Thorndike, J. Watson (studies behavior).

4. Psychoanalysis - Z. Freud (the role of the unconscious, sexual).

5. Neo-Freudianism - K. Horney, G.S. Sullivan, K. Jung (discovered extroverts and

introverts).

6. Gestalt psychology - K. Koffka, K. Köhler (psychology of the properties of the whole

determine the properties of its parts).

7. Genetic psychology - J. Piaget (study of mental development

child, his intelligence).

8. Cognitive psychology -J. Bruner, G. Simon, F. Heider (knowledge, cognition,

computer technology, cybernetics).

9. Humanistic psychology - K. Rogers, A. Maslow (creative possibilities

person)

10. Associative theories (associations - connections)

elements).

2. Functionalism - F. Galton, W. James, D. Dewey (mental functioning) 3. Behaviorism - E. L. Thorndike, J. Watson (studies behavior).

Domestic theories

1. Cultural-historical theory - L.S. Vygotsky.

2. Theory of activity - A.N. Leontiev.

3. Theory of leading activity - P.Ya. Galperin, A.R. Luria, D.B. Elkonin,

A.V. Zaporozhets.

4. Unity of consciousness and activity - S.L. Rubinstein

5. Psychology of individual differences – B.M. Teplov, V.S. Merlin.

6. Psychology of relationships – V.N. Myasishchev.

7. Human knowledge – B.G. Ananyev.

What books on psychology will help a beginner?

In order to independently study human psychology, you need to read books on similar topics. Human psychology is studied from the beginning. Before you can understand complex scientific findings, you need to learn basic terms and definitions. Such information can be found in first-year psychology textbooks. After mastering the terminology, you can move on to studying the works of the classics - S. Freud, K. Jung, A. Adler, K. Horney, E. Fromm.

The most famous author's works on psychology: Ekman Paul “Recognize a liar by his facial expression”, N.V. Baturin “How to Manage Emotions”, Martin Seligman “The Path to Prosperity”, Dan Ariely “The Whole Truth About Untruths”, Alice Muir “Self-Confidence”. In addition to books, there are many interesting magazines: “Experimental Psychology”, “Russian Psychological Journal”, “Existential and Humanistic Psychology”.

Psychology should be studied from books. It is recommended to consolidate the acquired knowledge in practice. Before advising people, a psychologist must work on himself, change his character and behavior. First you should study yourself. In order to be able to help others, the future psychologist needs to independently overcome his phobias and get rid of his own complexes and problems.

Domestic psychology

Directions:

1. Philosophical and religious – N. Grot (1852 – 1899), L. Lopatin (1855 – 1920), G. Chelpanov (1862 – 1936).

2. Natural science – I.M. Sechenov (1829 – 1905), V.M. Bekhterev (1857 – 1927), I.P. Pavlov (1849 – 1936).

Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein (1889-1960), Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902-1977) and a number of others. It is to their work that we primarily owe the fact that currently psychologists in our country do not have to start from scratch.

A.F. Lazursky (1874 – 1917) – founder of the natural experiment, questions of personality and human character.

M.Ya. Basov (1892 – 1931) – observation method.

Alexey Nikolaevich Leontiev , Boris Gerasimovich Ananyev (1907-1972), Alexander Vladimirovich Zaporozhets (1905-1981), Daniil Borisovich Elkonin (1904-1984), Pyotr Yakovlevich Galperin (1902-1988), etc.

1. Philosophical and religious – N. Grot (1852 – 1899), L. Lopatin (1855 – 1920), G. Chelpanov (1862 – 1936).

2. Natural science – I.M. Sechenov (1829 – 1905), V.M. Bekhterev (1857 –... Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein (1889-1960), Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902-1977) and...

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Diagnostic approach based on the theory of J. Piaget; development theories...

... Case: 1) problem solving, 2) research activity, 3) imitation, 4) control, 5) maturation. Diagnostic approach based on the theory of J. Piaget The theory of the development of a child’s thinking, proposed by J. Piaget, ... tasks (R. Keyes). Along with internal operational schemes that are projected onto the psyche, theories of development arose in which operational schemes began to be projected onto the external environment, i.e. ...

B.G. Ananiev - study of issues of perception, psychology of pedagogical assessment, general integral issues of human knowledge.

A.N. Leontiev - development of problems of perception, memory, consciousness, personality and mental development. He developed the theory of psychological theory of activity. A.V. Zaporozhets together with D.B. Elkonin laid the foundations of child psychology.

Alexander Vladimirovich Zaporozhets (1905-1981) - developed issues of general and child psychology, psychology of sensory processes and movement; contributed to the psychological theory of activity.

D.B. Elkonin is the author of the theory of children's play and the concept of periodization of age-related development. P.Ya. Halperin is a theory of the systematic (stage-by-stage) formation of mental actions. A.R. Luria - research into the neurophysiological foundations of human memory and thinking.

Psychophysiologist E.N. Sokolov - created the theory of color vision, a theory that explains human perception of the shape of objects, and a neurophysiological theory of memory.

Requirements for methods of psychological research

For the reliability of the results of psychodiagnostic research, it is necessary that psychodiagnostic methods meet a number of requirements.1. Validity - “completeness”, “suitability”, “compliance” - is determined by the correspondence of the indicators of the quality being studied, obtained using this technique, to the indicators obtained using other techniques.2. Reliability – characterizes the possibility of obtaining stable indicators using this technique. The reliability of a psychodiagnostic technique can be established in two ways: by comparing the results obtained by this technique by different people, by comparing the results obtained by the same technique under different conditions.3. The unambiguity of the technique is characterized by the extent to which the data obtained with its help reflect changes in precisely that property

, for the assessment of which this technique is used.4.
Accuracy – reflects the ability of the technique to subtly respond to the slightest changes in the assessed property that occur during a psychodiagnostic experiment.
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The structure of the human psyche. Consciousness as the highest level of mental development

... (and selectivity) to releasers. Social behavior Social behavior includes manifestations of mental activity directly related to the interaction between individuals and their groups. There are two...

Topic 1.2. Psyche and its development

The concept of the psyche, its structure and functions

Psyche is a systemic quality of the brain

The psyche is the essence where the diversity of nature gathers into its unity, it is a virtual compression of nature, it is a reflection of the objective world in its connections and relationships.

The psyche is a “subjective image of the objective world.”

There are different approaches to understanding who has a psyche:

1) anthropopsychism (Descartes) - the psyche is inherent only to man;

2) panpsychism (French materialists) - the universal spirituality of nature, i.e. all nature, the whole world has a psyche (including stone);

3) biopsychism - the psyche is a property of living nature (also inherent in plants);

4) neuropsychism (C. Darwin) - the psyche is characteristic only of organisms that have a nervous system;

5) brainpsychism (K.K. Platonov) - the psyche is only in organisms with a tubular nervous system that have a brain (with this approach, insects do not have a psyche, since they have a nodular nervous system, without a pronounced brain).

The human psyche is formed in a person only during his lifetime in the process of assimilating the culture created by previous generations.

Thus, the human psyche includes 3 components: the external world (nature, its reflection); full brain activity; interaction with people (active transmission of human culture and human abilities to new generations).

1) anthropopsychism (Descartes) - the psyche is inherent only to man; 2) panpsychism (French materialists) - the universal spirituality of nature,... 3) biopsychism - the psyche is a property of living nature (also inherent in plants);

Structure of the human psyche

The psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations.

Usually there are three large groups of mental phenomena :

1) mental processes (cognitive, emotional, volitional);

2) mental states;

3) mental properties.

History and theories - who introduced the concept of intelligence

The term “intelligence” was first used in the 20th century, introduced by the German psychologist William Stern.

Alfred Bene created IQ tests. The main task is to identify the level of intelligence of schoolchildren, the properties of students’ intelligence, to understand which of them is lagging behind in the program and who needs additional help. The test began to be used very widely, and various variants appeared. Today, such testing is disputed by scientists; not everyone recognizes its reliability and effectiveness.

What do you think about intelligence testing? Have you ever undergone such tests at least once in your life? Share your opinion and experience in the comments.

There are many theories of intelligence, but only a few are the most popular and widespread.

Functions of the psyche

1. Reflection of the surrounding world

2. Regulation of the behavior and activities of a living creature in order to ensure its survival.

Stages of mental development (A.N. Leontiev)

1. Sensitivity (the criterion for the appearance of the rudiments of the psyche in living organisms is the presence of sensitivity).

2. Instinctive behavior (innate form of behavior)

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Types of higher nervous activity and temperament

... a certain organization, structure, characterizing 3 temperaments. So, temperament should be understood as individually unique properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which, equally manifesting themselves in a variety of activities, regardless of its content, ...

3. Skills (acquired form of behavior)

4. Intellectual behavior of animals (the beginnings of thinking)

2. Regulation of the behavior and activities of a living creature in order to ensure its survival. Stages of development of the psyche (A.N. Leontyev) 1. Sensitivity (the criterion for the appearance of the rudiments of the psyche in living organisms is the presence of sensitivity).

Concept of reflection

Mental reflection is not a mirror, mechanically passive copying of the world; it is associated with search and choice.

Psychic reflection is active reflection.

The concept of consciousness. Functions, structure

Consciousness is the highest, human-specific form of generalized reflection of the objective stable properties and patterns of the surrounding world, the formation of a person’s internal model of the external world, as a result of which knowledge and transformation of the surrounding reality is achieved.

Properties of consciousness: building relationships, cognition and experience

Functions of consciousness:

1) reflective,

2) generative (creative-creative),

3) regulatory-evaluative,

4) reflexive - the main function that characterizes the essence of consciousness.

There are two layers of consciousness (V.P. Zinchenko).

I. Existential consciousness (consciousness for being), which includes: 1) biodynamic properties of movements, experience of actions; 2) sensory images.

II. Reflective consciousness (consciousness for consciousness), including: 1) meaning; 2) meaning.

Consciousness develops in humans only through social contacts. In phylogenesis, human consciousness developed and becomes possible only under conditions of active influence on nature, in conditions of labor activity. Consciousness is possible only in the conditions of the existence of language, speech, which arises simultaneously with consciousness in the process of labor.

Properties of consciousness: building relationships, cognition and experience Functions of consciousness: 1) reflective,

Methods of psychological influence on people

Society is people in constant communication. They influence each other, consciously or unconsciously. Methods of influencing others have a number of options:

1. Infection. This is the transfer of an emotional state between people. Panic and the cry of one person spoils the mood of everyone present. You can become “infected” with both negative and positive emotions.
2. Suggestion. The motivation for a specific action is instilled through verbal or non-verbal speech. Each personality is characterized by varying degrees of suggestibility. Insecure people, including children under 13, are more suggestible than independent people.
3. Belief. Action on the part of a person is caused by logical thinking. The higher the intelligence, the less prone to persuasion.
4. Imitation. People often copy the manners of others (consciously, unconsciously). Frequent role models are successful, wealthy individuals.

Manipulation is another way of influence. The manipulator gets what he wants, the opponent is left with the illusion of an independently made decision.

Human psychology is an interesting science. Anyone can understand its basics. But not everyone is able to practically apply the acquired theoretical knowledge. A psychologist will help you understand the intricacies of this complex discipline.

IMPORTANT! Informational article! Before use, you should consult a specialist.

Structure of self-awareness, self-esteem

The epicenter of consciousness is the consciousness of one’s own “I”. The image of “I” is the separation of oneself from the environment.

Self-awareness – awareness of oneself, one’s needs, motives, one’s qualities; the highest form of consciousness.

Self-awareness includes self-knowledge and self-relation.

Structure of self-awareness:

1) Awareness of your goals and motives.

2) Awareness: I am real, I am ideal.

3) Cognitive representations

4) Emotional-sensual self-knowledge and self-attitude.

Self-esteem is a person’s assessment of himself.

Self-awareness – awareness of oneself, one’s needs, motives, one’s qualities; the highest form of consciousness. Self-awareness includes self-knowledge and self-relation. Structure of self-awareness:

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Key performance indicators of a teacher (through the eyes of students in grades 9–11)

... to the teacher. The maximum score is 75, which indicates the student’s high assessment of the teacher’s work.

Specifics of the unconscious, its structure.

Topic 1.3. Activity as a way of existence

Concept of activity

Activity is the active interaction of a person with the environment, as a result of which he achieves a consciously set goal that arose as a result of the emergence of a certain need or motive.

The theory of activity in the works of A.N. Leontyev

A.N. Leontiev put forward the concept of activity, which is currently one of the recognized theoretical directions of modern psychology. Scheme of activity: (activity – action – operation – psychophysiological functions), correlated with the structure of the motivational sphere (motive – goal – condition).

The main concepts of this theory are activity, consciousness and personality.

Human activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several nonequilibrium levels. The top level is the level of special activities, then comes the level of actions, followed by the level of operations, and the lowest is the level of psychophysiological functions. The central place in this hierarchical structure is occupied by action, which is the main unit of activity analysis.

The main concepts of this theory are activity, consciousness and personality. Human activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of…

Psychology of human memory

Memory plays an important role in human psychology. Storing information in memory contributes to development, learning, and personality formation. The fundamental stone of memory is the change in nerve cells under the influence of stimuli, the long-term preservation of excitation. This leads to a number of biochemical changes in neurons. When recalling things in memory, nerve cells become excited despite the absence of stimuli.

The psychology of memory is associated with the qualities of water. This is not surprising, since the human body consists of 80% of this liquid. Water remembers the conditions in which it was previously. This quality is due to the absorption capacity, the ability to transform and redistribute energy.

Activity structure

Needs are the source of personality activity; they force a person to act actively. This is a person’s awareness of the need for something that he needs to maintain the body and develop his personality.

Types of needs:

— natural (natural) and social (spiritual);

- conscious and unconscious.

The goal is what the activity is directly aimed at.

A motive is a form of manifestation of a need, an incentive for a certain activity, the object for the sake of which the activity is carried out.

Movement is a motor function of a living organism, the simplest component of activity.

Types of movements:

- involuntary and voluntary,

- congenital and acquired.

Actions are a set of movements that have a goal and are aimed at a specific object (subject).

Actions are always social and are usually performed consciously.

Types of actions:

— subject;

- mental, strong-willed;

- actions aimed at other people - an act (or misdemeanor).

Types of needs: - natural (natural) and social (spiritual); - conscious and unconscious.

Main activities: communication, play, work, learning

They are present in the life of every person, the development of the psyche and personality takes place in them. The concept of leading activities of A.N. Leontyev.

Mastering activities: abilities, skills, habits

A skill is a successful way of performing an activity.

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Scientists divide a person’s age into the following types: chronological, ...

...give the concept of the social situation of development, the leading type of activity, and mental new formations. Age periodization is the periodization of human development from birth to death, determining ... the age of puberty. P. P. Blonsky points out the instability of the nervous system and the unbalanced, unmotivated behavior of children during critical periods. L.S. Vygotsky ...

Skills are partially automated actions that are learned through practice.

Types of skills : walking, running, writing, thinking, sensory, behavioral skills, etc.

Habit is the need to perform an appropriate action.

Types of habits: professional, moral, hygienic, aesthetic, educational, cultural behavior, etc. Useful and bad habits.

Topic 1.4. Man as an individual

The concepts of “individual”, “personality”, “subject”, “individuality”.

Skills are partially automated actions that are learned through practice. Types of skills: walking, running, writing, thinking, sensory, behavioral skills and... Habit is the need to perform an appropriate action.

Temperament as a characteristic of a person’s individual properties

Temperament is a personality trait that gives a unique color to all activities and behavior of people.

Temperament is the individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of his mental activity and behavior.

The term "temperament" in Latin means "proper proportion of parts."

Characteristics of temperament: activity and emotionality.

Theories of temperament

Interesting facts in the field of psychology

Education in the field of human psychology facilitates personal growth, helps to establish positive relationships with the environment, and helps to achieve success in professional activities. Scientific progress in this area has opened up new, previously unknown interesting facts about human psychology, and explained the reasons for specific actions or lack thereof.

Interesting facts in psychology that make you look at the human soul from a different perspective:

1. Happiness lies in keeping the brain constantly busy. The lack of new information and the ability to switch thinking between individual topics is depressing.
2. During sleep, the brain remains active. As a result, after waking up, a person remembers only really important facts.
3. The gray brain matter is a “sensor” of possible danger. But most people often ignore the signals sent to him, relying on happiness.
4. When starting a new activity, a person needs 2 months to get used to it. After this time, all innovations become automatic and do not cause discomfort.
5. People who suffer from nightmares usually feel cold in their sleep.
6. The best method for getting rid of anxiety is a book. Reading will help you switch your thinking faster and more effectively than music, sports, alcohol, or watching TV.
7. Expecting too much = painful failure. The more mundane the plans, the quieter the reaction to failure.
8. A notable fact of interesting psychology: when in an unknown place, people tend to stick to the right. Therefore, the queue on the left is always shorter than the queue on the right.
9. The tendency to disrupt order manifests itself in the presence of manifestations of reigning anarchy.
10. Few people want to argue with a calm person. Most people prefer emotional opponents.
11. The longer you sleep, the lower your risk of mental illness.
12. To create a positive relationship, it is important to say the name of the interlocutor.
13. A way to quickly fall asleep: in a supine position, close your eyes and roll your pupils up. This position promotes sleep.
14. The loudest speaker often wins the debate. Although often the emotionally speaking person turns out to be wrong.
15. An interesting psychological fact is that the lack of ability to assess the consequences of erroneous actions is the reason why incompetent people often achieve heights. They are characterized by stubbornness and self-confidence due to lack of professionalism.
16. External beauty is less common among criminals. Beautiful people get what they want from life in any case: either through charm or at the expense of others.
17. People focused on solving a problem often do not notice what is happening around them.
18. A few second glance is typical for ordinary interlocutors. A prolonged gaze indicates physical attraction or hidden aggression.

Humoral theory.

Back in ancient Greece, the physician Hippocrates proposed the concept of temperament. Temperament depends on the ratio of the four body fluids and which one predominates: blood (in Latin "sangve"), mucus (in Greek "phlegm"), red-yellow bile (in Greek "chole"), black bile (in Greek "melaine chole").

The mixture of these fluids, Hippocrates argued, underlies the main types of temperaments: sanguine, choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic.

Having given, in general, a correct description of the basic temperaments, Hippocrates could not give a scientific justification for them.

The mixture of these liquids, Hippocrates argued, underlies the main types of temperaments: sanguine, choleric, melancholic and... Having, in general, given a correct description of the basic temperaments, Hippocrates could not...

Constitutional theory.

It arose in the 20th century (Kretschmer, Sheldon).

The main idea is to establish a connection between temperament and a person’s physique.

Sheldon argued that body type depends on how a person’s intrauterine development proceeded.

Kretschmer correlated certain personality types with types of body structure.

Levels of psychological knowledge

Psychological knowledge is represented at several levels. The first of them contains people’s “everyday” ideas about the psyche. They arise in their real life practice and in its various spheres. An example could be material, production activities, everyday life, the process of education and training, art. All this is based on a direct reflection of the relevant aspects of existence and the philosophy of “common sense”.

At the next level there is psychological knowledge, which is distinguished within the framework of mythology and religion as the historically first forms of knowledge of the world and man. They reflect the canonical requirements of different types of cultural creativity of humanity.

Another level of psychological knowledge includes psychological knowledge that was accumulated as part of artistic and imaginative observation of the surrounding world (for example, the work of an artist, architect, writer).

The last level of psychological scientific knowledge is psychological knowledge that arose at a certain stage in the development of society. This occurs due to the identification of a new way of reconstructing reality in the form of science. The level is represented by a purposeful process of collecting and analyzing psychological facts, including logical forms of their explanation and evidence, a transition from descriptive strategies and research methods to explanatory ones (scientific knowledge itself).

In turn, scientific psychological knowledge, which initially arose in the period of antiquity, itself goes through a long path of evolution. At first it exists at the basis of other scientific knowledge (for example, philosophical, historical, natural science). Then it is isolated and further developed within the framework of an independent scientific discipline. For psychology, this time begins in the second half of the 19th century.

Physiological theory.

I.P. Pavlov, studying the work of the cerebral hemispheres, established that all traits of temperament depend on the characteristics of a person’s higher nervous activity. He proved that among representatives of different temperaments, typological differences in the strength, balance and mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex change.

Various relationships between the indicated properties of nervous processes were used as the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity.

Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition I.P. Pavlov identified four types of nervous system, which correspond to four temperaments:

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Types of human temperament

... factors, including the type of temperament of people. Temperament refers to individual psychological characteristics that characterize a person’s personality from the dynamics of his mental ... and inhibition. This determines the performance (endurance) of the nerve cell. The weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated stimulation...

1. Sanguine - strong, balanced, agile.

2. Phlegmatic - strong, balanced, sedentary

3. Choleric - strong, unbalanced.

4. Melancholic - weak processes of excitation and inhibition.

Various relationships between the indicated properties of nervous processes were used as the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of processes... 1. Sanguine - strong, balanced, agile.

Psychological characteristics of people of different types of temperament

Sanguine is fast, agile, responds emotionally to all impressions; feelings are bright, but unstable and are easily replaced by opposite feelings. A sanguine person quickly establishes social contact. He is almost always the initiator in communication, immediately responds to the desire to communicate on the part of another person, but his attitude towards people can be changeable and fickle. He feels like a fish in water in a large company of strangers, and a new, unusual environment only excites him

Phlegmatic - slow, balanced and calm, who is not easily emotionally affected and cannot be enraged; his feelings hardly manifest themselves on the outside. In relationships with other people, they are calm and stable in their emotions. But under certain conditions, indifference to work, to the surrounding life, and lack of will may develop. The phlegmatic establishes social contacts slowly, shows little of his feelings and does not notice for a long time that someone is looking for a reason to get acquainted with him. But he is stable and constant in his attitude towards people. He loves to be in a narrow circle of old acquaintances, in familiar surroundings.

Choleric is fast, impetuous, with strong, flaming feelings that are clearly reflected in expressive facial expressions, gestures, and speech. He is often prone to violent emotional outbursts. Choleric people experience rapid mood swings and imbalance. Starting a business with enthusiasm, the choleric quickly cools down, interest in the work disappears, and he continues without inspiration, and sometimes even abandons it. People of choleric temperament can be difficult to communicate with.

A melancholic person does not respond emotionally to everything. He has a small variety of emotional experiences, but these experiences are distinguished by significant depth, strength and duration. He does not respond to everything, but when he does respond, he experiences it strongly, although he expresses little of his feelings outwardly. In a familiar, calm environment, people of this type work very productively and are distinguished by the depth and content of their emotional and moral behavior and attitude towards the people around them. Melancholic people are very touchy and have a hard time dealing with failures and insults. They are prone to isolation, loneliness, feel awkward in a new, unusual environment, and are often embarrassed.

In most cases, it is a combination of the characteristics of one temperament with the traits of another. Temperament type cannot be “good” or “bad”.

Phlegmatic - slow, balanced and calm, who is not easily emotionally offended and cannot be enraged; his feelings are almost in no way... Choleric - fast, impetuous, with strong, flaming feelings that... Melancholic - does not respond emotionally to everything. He has a small variety of emotional experiences, but...

The role of psychology in human life

The formation of human personality occurs already in childhood by absorbing information coming from the environment. Character is built under the influence of this knowledge. In accordance with the dominant character traits, the presence of desire, a person can cope with problems or succumb to them.

Self-control is an important factor in solving all problem situations. It is difficult to unbalance a person who is able to keep his emotions under control. He is aware of appropriate behavior in society and knows how to find the approach to people necessary to achieve the target result.

Human psychology in this regard is based on a number of rules. Compliance with them is a guarantee of success:

• understanding people;
• positive relationships with others, regardless of their social status;
• respect for the interests of others;
• accepting difficulties and overcoming them;
• defending your interests, regardless of the situation;
• leaving mistakes and failures in the past after learning from them;
• constant actions aimed at achieving success;
• lack of fear of new things and responsibility.

All people sometimes find themselves in situations that require certain actions that have not been taken before. Some begin to act immediately. Others despair. Still others are waiting for the “opportune” moment. An excellent reaction to a similar situation is due to individual personal characteristics, moral principles, education, and upbringing.

A morally unstable person gives in to danger because he does not know how to behave. Instead of taking action (eg running away), he loses clarity of thought, as a result of which he becomes vulnerable.

Successful solution of problems encountered in life requires preparation for them, strengthening of the will and psyche. Awareness in the field of psychology will help solve most of these problems. Psychological preparedness for difficult situations minimizes fear, supports an adequate response to an unusual situation, and the correctness of actions.

Diagnosis of temperament

The first group includes techniques based on the natural relationship between the properties of the human nervous system and his temperament. With their help, based on the study of individual properties of the human nervous system, one judges certain innate characteristics of his temperament, which are closely related precisely to these properties of the nervous system.

The second group consists of questionnaires that allow one to judge the properties of temperament by its practical actions and a person’s reactions to various life situations.

The third group includes various kinds of tests - questionnaires, projective, etc., which allow one to study in detail certain character traits of a person, giving them a detailed meaningful (qualitative) description and a quantitative assessment of the degree of their development.

Finally, the fourth group includes tests based on one or another theoretical idea of ​​personality structure. They usually contain many subscales that allow simultaneous assessment of various personal qualities included in the corresponding structure.

Experiments are also used to study temperament. Experimental technique developed by Yu.A. Samarin "Transfer of cubes"

The second group consists of questionnaires that allow one to judge the properties of temperament by its practical actions and a person’s reactions to... The third group of methods includes various kinds of tests - questionnaires, projective... Finally, the fourth group includes tests based on one or another theoretical picture of…

Why are psychology lessons needed?

Psychological knowledge is important in any area of ​​human life. Sometimes people don't know what to do in a given situation. Social psychology lessons will come to their aid. They will be useful to anyone who wants to achieve mutual understanding with others, understand the causes of events, the motives of other people’s behavior. Knowledge of psychology helps you solve your own problems and steadfastly resist any troubles encountered along the path of life. Psychological science can be studied independently from books or with the help of recommendations from specialists.

Psychology lessons contain knowledge from a variety of theoretical materials. They are created by experienced psychologists who not only strive to convey various scientific findings to the minds of their students, but also adapt them for practical use. Each lesson provides useful tips and various recommendations.

Education begins with studying a person as an individual. Before understanding people's behavior, we need to explore the reasons that influence their psyche. Psychological knowledge can be applied in practice thanks to special methods of psychology. Knowing all the basics of psychology, you need to learn how to influence others and build friendly relationships with people.

Why are psychology lessons from a specialist better than independent reading? The training course is specially designed for people who do not understand anything about this science, but want to quickly learn to understand people. An experienced psychologist gives you the opportunity to study the theory and immediately tells you how to apply the acquired knowledge in practice. Without such tips, you can study books on psychology for years, but still not know how to behave in a conflict situation.

In addition to books and textbooks, the specialist uses psychological games and exercises in his lessons. They help people consolidate what they have learned and better understand themselves and those around them. During lessons, students can take part in psychological experiments, study psychological effects, take tests, and watch videos.

Those who want to study psychology can turn to psychologist-hypnologist Nikita Valeryevich Baturin for help, or take online training from him.

The “Tip” technique developed by V.A. Gorbachev.

The experiment “Transfer of cubes” is carried out in the form of a game. The idea is that the tested preschool children receive a small spatula, on which cubes are placed one on top of the other (3, 4, 5, etc. cubes).

The child must carry these cubes, holding a spatula in his right hand, from one table to another at a distance of 3 meters, then he must turn 180° (while continuing to hold the spatula in his hand), bring the cubes back, place the spatula with cubes on the table without dropping not a single cube.

The experimental game " Tip " has several variants. In the first, the teacher, in the presence of children, hides the tip of a fountain pen in his right or left hand. Children must unclench their fist to find it. After 30-45 seconds of “resistance,” the teacher-experimenter relaxes his hand and the children master the tip.

The second option is to study the mobility of the nervous system. There is no tip in the experimenter's hand. While the children are examining the fist, he puts the tip into the pocket of one of the children. When children discover that the tip is not in the teacher’s hand, you can invite them to guess who has it. The owner of the tip must try not to give himself away, and the children must determine who has the tip by their facial expression and behavior.

The experimental game "Tip" has several variants. In the first, the teacher, in the presence of children, hides it in his right or left hand... The second option is carried out to study the mobility of the nervous system...

Eysenck's Temperament Questionnaire

Questionnaire by Rusalova, Strelyau.

Leonhard-Shmishek (in children).

Observation of children 1-3 years old Lavrentieva and Titarenko.

Examples of similar educational works

The main categories of psychology (psyche, consciousness, personality, activity.

... him. The main categories of psychology (psyche, consciousness, personality, activity. Psyche is a set of mental processes, ... Components: Temperament, Character, Abilities, Motivation An individual is an individual person, a representative of ...

Psyche. Consciousness and unconsciousness

... and activities typical for a given person (these are personality traits, individuality) Temperament Character Abilities Social attitudes Needs Motives Goals Values, etc. All these main forms of manifestation of the psyche interact ...

Categories of psychology. (image, motive, reflection, psyche, consciousness, activity, ...

... his practical activities; as the highest form of reflection of reality, using systems of concepts and categories. Psychology studies the origin, structure, functioning and development of the individual’s consciousness. Consciousness is characterized by: activity; ...

the problem of man and his psyche

… consciousness. The relevance of psychological research into the problem of man and his psyche is due to the fact that man is the subject of a whole variety of activities, ... – 400 p. 15. Panferov, V. N. Human psychology: textbook [text] / V. N. ...

Thinking and consciousness are determined by real existence, the lives of people and exist only...

... the individual psyche is an analysis of the activities of individuals in given social conditions and specific circumstances that befall each of them. 2. Theory of consciousness. Consciousness has invariably appeared in psychology...

Psychology of human memory

And I would also like to dwell on such an object of study of psychology as memory. Why her?

Memory is the most intriguing human ability. It makes a person a person. If the functionality of any of the sense organs fails, the person will still remain himself. But without memory he will lose his “I”.

Memory is comprehensive: any mental process will necessarily become a memory.

Someone calculated that the human brain can store 1 million gigabytes of information. For comparison, a computer's RAM is 4-8 gigabytes, tiny compared to the brain.

But how memory works is a mystery that has armies of scientists puzzling over it. A widespread theory (and psychoanalysis is built on it) is that a person does not forget anything, his entire past is encoded in his brain. And if you find the code, you can resurrect the smallest details of the past. This theory is confirmed by hypnosis and phenomenal examples of absolute memory - they exist.

Neuroscientists say that the process of remembering is the result of imprinting on tens of billions of human brain cells. But how exactly do the bonds work in this mixture of molecules, ions, proteins and lipids? There is still a long way to go to solve this mystery. The main paradox is that each molecule of the body is reborn several times during life, connections between them are formed and destroyed millions of times, but memory is preserved.

What is the practical use of memory psychology? Memory can be developed.

For example, have you heard of Cicero's method of memorization, also called the Roman room system? This is interesting. The famous Roman politician was a master of oratory and spoke without notes. And he remembered his speech before the performance as follows. I walked around the house and mentally placed the main points in different places. Try to arrange your thoughts in a certain order, imagining some familiar room and, as it were, walking around it along a certain route.

But this is a particular thing. To summarize, the most popular ways to develop memory are:

• associative series,
• word games,
• mechanical learning by heart,
• reading aloud,
• logical problems, solving equations and examples in the mind,
• some computer games and online simulators.

Train your memory! It reflects the past but serves the future. That is, what was is fixed in memory insofar as it is necessary for what will be. Difficult? But exciting!