Human speech behavior, its influence on perception.

Types of verbal communication

Speech is the main mechanism of verbal communication. Speech communication occurs using language systems. Verbal communication can be internal or externally directed. External verbal communication, in turn, can be oral and written. Oral verbal interaction is divided into monologue speech and dialogic speech.

Types of verbal communication are closely related to each other. They are united by pronouncing words silently or out loud. Along with this, each type of verbal communication has subjective specific characteristics. Thought cannot be formulated without a language system and material verbal processes. In preparation for oral or written speech, an intermediate phase of speaking the text to oneself is distinguished. This phase is called inner speech.

External written speech is mediated by text. It is more concentrated in its content than colloquial. Verbal written speech is understood as a verbal process with the use of written signs. Written speech is formed through a complex relationship of sounds, which are formed due to the perception of letters by the hearing aid, visible to the eye, and speech movements reproduced by the individual. It follows that written speech is based on oral speech.

The audible speech spoken by someone is called spoken language. She is limited by space and time, which is imprinted on her character, since basically, communication partners are within sight or hearing distance of each other. The nature of verbal communication during television broadcasting changes significantly when the audience does not have the opportunity to respond.

Speech communication can be classified according to content, namely material, cognitive (cognitive), conditional (emotional), motivational, activity. It can also be classified according to the interaction techniques used and depending on the tasks, namely mask contact, secular communication, formal-role and business communication, interpersonal, manipulative communication.

Material communication is the exchange of products of activity. Cognitive or cognitive communication involves the exchange of data, knowledge, and experience. Emotional or conditional interaction contains the exchange of emotional moods between individuals who have entered into communication. Motivational interaction is the exchange of intentions, motivations, goals, interests, plans or needs. Activity communication covers the exchange of skills carried out as a result of joint activities.

Contact of masks is called formal communication, which consists in the absence of the desire to understand and take into account the characteristic features of the partner’s personality.

The essence of secular communication lies in its pointlessness. In other words, communicating individuals do not talk about what they think about, but about what they should talk about in the current circumstances.

Formal-role communication consists of regulation and content, where the main role is played by the social status of the interlocutor and his place in the official or social hierarchy.

Business communication is a process of interaction in which data and messages are exchanged in order to achieve the desired result.

Interpersonal communication, or also called intimate-personal communication, consists of revealing deep personal structures. Manipulative interaction is aimed at obtaining benefits from the interlocutor.

Kinds

External speech is divided into groups:

1. Spoken speech etiquette includes a lot of varieties, starting with conversational speech at the everyday level. This also includes a business style of communication, scientific speech as a way of dialogue between scientists, public figures, and philosophers. Artistic speech is expressed in teaching and in theatrical performances. Publicistic speech is aimed at conveying information and telling stories about events.
2. Written - displaying oral speech in writing text. It is important in terms of preserving information and transmitting it through generations.
3. Monologue - a monologue by one speaker who is listened to by a large audience. Adhere to the etiquette of verbal communication at conferences, seminars, and in speeches by coaches.
4. Dialogical - a dialogue between people on a specific topic that both interlocutors know and understand. Dialogue speech is replete with a set of specific expressions and technical terms related to this topic. People around you who don’t know what you’re talking about may not understand the essence of the conversation. But both interlocutors follow all the rules of speech etiquette during a dialogue that concerns only them.
5. Inner speech. Identified based on the level of education and self-education. This is a person’s ability to listen, perceive and pass through the information received. The ability to think, analyze the situation within oneself, without resorting to written and oral speech. Internal speech is a continuation of external speech, only in silent mode. A person thinks before answering a question, expressing his opinion, and compares information within himself in order to teach it correctly. Inner speech depends on the development of the intellect, on the basis of which the development of speech in a person is judged. Any thought is formed with the help of inner speech, despite the fact that a person expresses it or keeps it to himself.

Summary of verbal operants

The following table shows the new verbal operants in the analysis of speech behavior.

It should be borne in mind, however, that almost all speech behavior does not consist of these “pure” operants, but of a mixture of them.

Behavior under the control of verbal stimuli

textual

In the fourth chapter, Skinner notes the forms of control exerted by verbal stimuli. One form is text behavior, which refers to a type of behavior we can typically call reading or writing. The vocal response is controlled by a verbal stimulus that is not heard. There are two different conditions associated ("reading"). If they are the same they become "copying text" (see Jack Michael on copying text), if they hear it written, it becomes "dictation", and so on.

onomatopoeic

Skinner was one of the first to seriously consider the role of imitation in language learning. He introduced this concept in his book on Verbal Behavior

with the concept of onomatopoeic. This is behavior under the functional control of a verbal stimulus. The verbal response and the verbal portion of the stimulus are what is called point-to-point correspondence (formal similarity.) The speaker repeats what is said. In onomatopoeic behavior, the stimulus is auditory and the response is vocal. This is often observed at the beginning of shaping behavior. For example, in learning a new language, a teacher might say "mean" and then say "Can you tell what it is?" to induce an onomatopoeic response.

Vinokur (1978) is one example of research on onomatopoeic relationships.

Speech means of communication

Verbal (sign) communicative interaction is realized using words. Human speech is considered a verbal means of communication. Studies show that modern “homo sapiens” pronounce approximately 30 thousand words per day, and about three thousand per hour. Words form a variety of speech texts, which are formed depending on the goals of the communicants, for example, to communicate or learn something, to express an attitude or to encourage something. Such texts can be oral or written. They implement language systems, which are systems of signs and methods of their combination. Language systems serve as a kind of tool that facilitates the expression of thoughts, the manifestation of feelings and desires of subjects. They are the most important means of verbal communication.

Language as a means of verbal communication has various purposes. It acts as a core means of communicative interaction. Thanks to this purpose of language systems, people have the opportunity to fully interact in society as a whole and with individuals individually. This purpose of language systems is considered their communicative function. In addition to the communication function, language as a means of verbal communication has a number of other functions, such as cognitive, accumulative, constructive, emotional, contact-building and ethnic.

The cognitive function of language is an expression of the activity of human consciousness. After all, people receive a significant part of information about the outside world through language.

The accumulative function involves the accumulation and preservation of experience, the storage of knowledge for use in later life. In everyday life, people are helped out by keeping diaries or notebooks. And the original “notebooks”, the heritage of all mankind, are all kinds of written monuments and literature.

The constructive function is to form thoughts and various judgments. With the help of language systems, thought seems to acquire a material shell and sound form. Expressed through words, a thought becomes clear and understandable, first of all, for the individual who expressed it.

The emotional function is one of the tools for expressing feelings and emotional states. This function is realized through speech only under the condition of direct expression of the individual’s emotional attitude to the information he communicates. In this case, intonation plays the main role.

The contact-establishing function is expressed in establishing contact between individuals. At times, communication may be aimless, and its information content may be zero, which means preparing the ground for further productive and trusting communication.

The ethnic function lies in uniting the people.

Speech behavior

​​A person’s speech behavior is a complex phenomenon associated with the characteristics of his upbringing, place of birth and education, with the environment in which he habitually communicates, with all the characteristics characteristic of him as an individual and as a representative of a social group, as well as a national community.

Verbal behavior is a manifestation of behavior in verbal form, consisting of:

- phrases,

- intonation,

- internal subtext.

A person’s speech behavior as a whole serves as an indicator of his general erudition, characteristics of intelligence, motivation of behavior and emotional state.

Erudition can be assessed to a certain extent by the content of speech and presupposes, first of all, the presence of deep and versatile knowledge. If from specific statements of a person it is clear that he is well versed in various issues, quickly finds compelling arguments to confirm his point of view, using adequate linguistic means, then we can say about him that he is an erudite person.

We can conclude that a person carries within himself the experience of linguistic development of generations, including the experience of wordsmiths, the experience of the country, the environment, as well as his own, that he is always within the framework of speech behavior set by the diverse conditions.

Speech is an important informative signal when assessing the emotional state of a person, in particular his emotional tension, manifested in the particular choice of words and the specifics of the stylistic structure of the statement.

In a state of emotional tension, many people have difficulty finding words when expressing their point of view. In particular, compared to speech under normal conditions, the number and duration of pauses increases. They are sometimes called pauses of indecision. This is easy to verify if you compare the speech of the same person in a calm state and in a state of emotional tension.

Difficulties in choosing words can manifest themselves in the utterance of various meaningless repetitions, in the use of words: “this”, “you see”, “you know”, “such”, “well”, “here”, etc.

Under conditions of emotional tension, vocabulary becomes less diverse. Speech in these cases is characterized by stereotypes (the speaker uses words that are most typical for him and actively uses speech cliches).

Another important indicator of emotionally intense speech is the grammatical incompleteness of phrases, which is specified in grammatical lack of formality, a violation of the logical connection and sequence between individual statements, which leads to ambiguity.

The speaker is distracted from the main idea, focusing on details, which, of course, complicates understanding. In the future, as a rule, he realizes the mistake he made, but trying to correct it, he usually gets even more confused. It should be noted that the most important indicator of a person’s mental health is speech; almost all mental disorders are clearly recorded from it.

As proof, we can give an example from student life: students presenting material in the usual conditions of a seminar, as well as during an exam. In a student audience, the speaker freely presents the material, using all the vocabulary. During the exam, the student feels less comfortable, the number of words and verbs used in his answers decreases compared to the number of adjectives and adverbs, and the number of words denoting uncertainty (“apparently,” “maybe,” “probably”) increases. There are repetitions of a single word or several words nearby. The number of words expressing an assessment of objects and events is growing (the so-called semantic non-exclusiveness using the words “no”, “always”, “at all”, which is a characteristic feature of emotionally charged speech). Pauses for thinking are lengthened, “self-interruptions” are allowed in order to correct what has already been said, which spoils the overall impression of the answer.

Voice intonations are also subtle indicators of not only states, but also deep personal parameters of a person. You can change the timbre of your voice, be in different moods, but only 20% of personal characteristics will be new, and the remaining 80% remain constant. Taking into account vocal characteristics in the study of the interlocutor provides very important and reliable information, which the speaker can hide from an attentive observer only with appropriate special training.

Intonation and timbre make up the fund of significant phonations that we widely use in communication. This is the whole gamut of feelings and the whole spectrum of social and personal relationships.

Through intonation, the speaker conveys to the listener an evaluative characteristic of the content of the text. To accurately convey thoughts, it is necessary to use logical means. This is a kind of emotional stress, or intonation of speech.

In Russian there are three types of logical intonation:

- messages,

- question,

- motivations.

At the same time, it was established that the simple intonation of the question and answer, i.e. the intonation of a message is determined aurally not by the final movement of the tone of the entire phrase, but by the movement of the tone, taking into account the tempo and intensity in the word, regardless of its lexical meaning.

Intonations, it should be noted, are universal. And even when a person is silent, his emotional state affects the electrical activity of the muscles of the speech apparatus.

Writers often designate the vocal accompaniment of the statements uttered by the characters: speak softly, insinuatingly, rudely, defiantly, with a smile, through gritted teeth, cordially, affably, gloomily, maliciously. And by the way the word “sounded” in a literary text, we recognize the feelings and relationships of the characters. And each of the shades will be revealed by the peculiarities of intonation, voice expression, as well as the “language of the eyes”, a smile.

In communication situations, a person’s voice is a very characteristic feature that allows one to form a general impression of him. In mass studies, from 60 to 90% of correct judgments regarding body size, plumpness, mobility, internal state and age were obtained, relying only on the voice and manner of speaking.

Based on voice, Anton Stangl characterizes a person’s personal characteristics as follows:

- a lively, lively manner of speaking, a fast pace of speech indicates the liveliness, impulsiveness of the interlocutor, his self-confidence;

- a calm, slow manner indicates equanimity, prudence, thoroughness;

- noticeable fluctuations in the speed of speech reveal a lack of balance, uncertainty, and slight excitability of a person;

— strong changes in volume indicate the emotionality and excitement of the interlocutor;

- clear and precise pronunciation of words indicates internal discipline, the need for clarity;

- ridiculous, vague pronunciation is characteristic of compliance, uncertainty, softness, and lethargy of will.

Types of speech behavior:

• Positive speech behavior - polite conversation, sincere conversation, constructive discussion.
• Negative speech behavior - whining, grumbling, annoying with requests, threats, tomfoolery, provoking a quarrel.

Self-amplification

Here Skinner draws a parallel to his position on self-control and notes: "A person controls his own behavior, verbal or otherwise, as he controls the behavior of other people." Appropriate speech behavior may be weak, like forgetting a name, and needs strengthening. It may have been insufficient experience while in a foreign language. Repeating a formula, reciting poetry, and so on. These methods are manipulation of stimuli, changing the level of editing, mechanical production of speech behavior, changing motivational and emotional variables, incubation, and so on. Skinner gives an example of the use of some of these methods provided by the author.

Communication culture and speech etiquette

One of the most important criteria for an individual’s culture is the level of culture of his speech. Therefore, each person needs to strive to improve their own communication styles and speech etiquette. The level of speech culture depends not only on the ability to avoid mistakes in communications, but also on the desire to regularly enrich vocabulary, the ability to listen and the desire to understand a partner, respect his views, and the ability to choose the right words depending on the interaction situation.

Speech is considered one of the most important characteristics inherent in a person. The impression that people make on the surrounding society depends on the style of communicative interaction.

The speech of an individual has the ability to attract society and other individuals to his personality or, conversely, repel them. Speech can also have a strong impact on the mood of communication partners. Thus, the culture of verbal communications is formed from the ability to listen to the speaker, speech etiquette, and following the rules of good manners.

Often, people, carried away by the topic of conversation, forget about the culture of communication interaction. They try to impose their own judgments, positions and views on the topic of conversation on their partner, do not try to delve into the counter-arguments that the opponent brings and simply do not listen to him, which ultimately leads to neglect of speech etiquette and a cessation of monitoring what they say.

The culture of communication and speech etiquette strictly prohibits putting any pressure on a conversation partner. Besides the fact that imposing one’s own position looks rather ugly from the outside, it is also ineffective. This style of behavior will most likely cause a defensive reaction on the part of the partner, which, at best, will lead to ineffective conversation, and at worst, to conflict situations.

If a communication partner does not listen to his opponent, constantly interrupts him, not allowing him to finish his speech, then this will not only be a demonstration of a lack of cultural speech, but also a manifestation of disrespect for the partner’s personality, which will not characterize the interlocutor who cannot listen at all positively. The ability to listen is an integral part of the culture of communicative interaction.

The verbal tool of communication and speech etiquette today are considered two of the most important components of success, both in communication and in other activities. They help to establish contacts with people, increase the effectiveness of communication, and persuade the mass audience to their own position. The influence of speech culture on the speaker’s behavioral styles is invaluable.

The concept of speech etiquette

From childhood, parents, educators, teachers, nannies instill in children good manners of speech, talking about the rules of behavior in society. Speech etiquette is part of the general rules and norms of behavior. In the age of computer technology, live communication has been replaced by virtual communication. A whole slang trend has emerged - words used only on social networks. For example, “preved”, “krosavcheg”, “ok”. The new generation has stopped thinking about what speech etiquette is. However, for a successful career, it is important to be able to communicate, show your best side, and be able to convince of your knowledge in order to take a leadership position. To do this, you need to adhere to the rules of speech etiquette, understand what situation you are in, and what needs to be said in a certain situation.

Criticism and other reactions

Chomsky review

In 1959, Noam Chomsky published an influential critique of verbal behavior

. Chomsky noted that children acquire their first language without being explicitly or overtly "learned" in a way that would be consistent with behaviorist theory (see language acquisition and stimulus poverty), and that Skinner's theories of "operants" and behavioral reinforcement fail to explain that the fact that people can speak and understand sentences that they have never heard before.

Chomsky's 1959 review, among his other works from that period, is generally considered to have been influential in reducing the influence of behaviorism within linguistics, philosophy, and cognitive science. However, it has attracted fire from a number of critics, the most famous criticism being that of Kenneth McCorquodale's 1970 article On Chomsky's review of Skinner's verbal behavior

. MacCorquodale argued that Chomsky did not have an adequate understanding of either behavioral psychology in general, or the differences between Skinnerian behaviorism and other varieties. As a consequence, he argued, Chomsky made several serious errors of logic. Given these problems, MacCorquodale argues that the review failed to demonstrate that it is often cited as doing, meaning that those most influential on Chomsky's paper probably already essentially agreed with it. Chomsky's review was also alleged to misrepresent the work of Skinner and others, including by taking quotes out of context. Chomsky states that the review was aimed at how Skinner's version of behavioral psychology "was applied to Quinean empiricism and the naturalization of philosophy".

Chomsky's influence was a point that Skinner himself acknowledged. Sam Leigland suggests that interest in Skinner's work is growing with the following emphasis on various complex verbal phenomena.

Alternatives to Skinner Behavior Analysis

There is also now an alternative to Skinner's account of behavior analysis, relational frame theory, and authors in the field have developed a number of behavior analytic objections to Skinner's particular approach. There is some controversy regarding the status of RFT in relation to behavior analysis. Its founder, Stephen Hayes, views it as an extension of operant conditioning principles, which is consistent with but goes beyond Skinner's analysis (personal communication).

Others believe that it is consistent with behavior analysis, but involves principles that do not

in normal operant conditioning. Finally, there are those who believe that this is simply another form of cognitive behaviorism, rather than radical behaviorism.

Rules of speech communication for the Speaker and for the Listener

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Introduction:

Two life manifestations of a person - activity and behavior - differ in what is in activity. In accordance with this, specialists in the theory of speech activity, psycholinguists, speech actions are motivated, the goals of conscious speech manifestations are defined, speech behavior is defined as devoid of conscious motivation, automated stereotypical speech manifestations (due to the frequently repeated communication situation).

A person’s behavior in speech is a complex phenomenon; this is due to the characteristics of his upbringing, place of birth and education, so it is generally known.

Connections between different social communications:

• universal, professional, status, etc.). A position that determines the principle of verbal behavior or a person’s position (for example, leader - subordinate, consultant - client, teacher - student, etc.);
• transmission of information by many people: direct speech or public speech.

Features of speech behavior

The speech behavior of people in socially oriented communication has a number of features. First of all, it should be noted that the report must express the official nature of speech activity; here speech is always subordinated to a non-human purpose aimed at organizing the joint activities of people. This feature predetermines a much stricter (compared to interpersonal interaction) regulation of speech behavior. Although the norms of speech behavior belong to the sphere of silent relations between societies, the observance of which is accompanied by much stricter control.

In the pragmatic study of language, a number of specific rules are formulated. Initial conditions:

participants have at least a short-term, immediate common goal. Even if their ultimate goals are different or conflicting,

With the expectation that the interaction will continue until both participants decide to get together, we won't say a word or do anything else. The conditions described are called the “principle of cooperation”, that is, everyone agrees.

Pay attention to the basic rules of speech communication, thanks to this principle:

1. the statement should contain exactly as much information as is required to achieve the current communication goals; due to the fact that the knowledge that there are some special purposes makes it particularly appropriate to convey this unnecessary information;
2. the statement must, if possible, be true; try not to say what you consider to be false; there are no sufficient grounds;
3. the statement must be relevant, that is, correspond to the topic of the conversation: try not to deviate from the topic;
4. the statement must be clear: avoid unclear expressions, avoid ambiguity; Avoid unnecessary verbosity.

People are verbose, they don’t always say what they think, that their speech is abrupt and incomprehensible. However, if this violation does not affect the basic principle of cooperation, the interaction continues and is mutual understanding. Otherwise, destructive communication and speech impairment may occur.

The principle of politeness is important for regulating social interactions. The latter relates exclusively to speech etiquette (which will be discussed later). Note that tactics such as tact, generosity, approval, modesty, agreement, goodwill, expressed (or not expressed) in speech, are most obvious depending on the nature of the social relationship.

A clearly recognized purpose for the sender of the message requires a well-thought-out form of the message and a predictable response from the audience.

Associated with fairly clearly defined message expectations from message recipients. All that is necessary for a conversation about a representative or other social groups may be due to the fact that it is not about trust, the absence or absence of speakers, etc. The more formal the speech situation, the more formal the listeners. expectations.

Naturally, we are talking about social interaction when participants in oral communication speak not on their own behalf, but on behalf of the group, that is, this is how they feel.

Of particular importance are the means used by the interlocutors, speech strategies and tactics.

Verbal communication strategy refers to the process of constructing communication aimed at achieving long-term results. The strategy involves planning interactions depending on the specific conditions of communication and the personality of the communicators, that is, the line of conversation. Strategy can lead to gaining trust, influencing the future, collaborating, or not taking any action.

Verbal communication tactics are understood as a combination of methods of conducting a conversation and a line of behavior at a certain stage in a separate conversation. It includes specific demands aimed at attracting attention to it, persuasion or forwarding, etc.

Evidence, sensitivity and emotion. A person can achieve different goals or strategic directions. Changing tactics in a conversation is a mental operation, although it can be done intuitively. By collecting and understanding tactics, you can learn to use them consciously and skillfully.

To conduct a conversation, it is necessary to prepare in advance the general picture and possible options for the development of conversations, learn to recognize the points at which topics can be found, and strive to ensure that the interlocutors can use speech methods. influence, evaluate his strategy and tactics, develop ways of flexible response - play along or encourage him to take action. When he speaks, he only has one conversation option.

The importance of speech culture in education

This is the process of teaching and raising children. The child is adapted to the culture of his environment. The word matters to his life. The word in the form of praise, punishment, affection regulates his subjective state. The bulk of educational effects are in oral form. School readiness quotient. River communication in primary education has its own characteristics, as evidenced by the specific speech of teachers and educators in primary grades of schools and preschool institutions.

Swiss psychologist J. Piaget, the author of a classic work on the functioning of language in childhood, came to the conclusion that language has two different functions and two types of speech existence - egocentric and socialized speech.

According to Piaget, self-centered speech is an example of poor coding. Although the child says that he does not put himself in his place. His conversation is just thinking out loud. This means that the point of view should not contain any evidence. The child has difficulty asking himself the question; it doesn't matter to him because he doesn't think about others when he speaks. According to Piaget, in a child under the age of 7-8 years, egocentric language makes up almost half of his speech volume.

Socialized speech involves adapting information for its listener. Children think about themselves, even in company with others.

If we accept these findings without saying a word, we should expect that all adults have excellent capabilities for social coding. However, it is not. Differences in the speech behavior of adults are associated with the social environment, which creates different ways of communication or different styles of language coding. In psychological studies of speech, two codes are distinguished - restrictive (or restrictive) and developed. A limited code may be the result of a person's professional and group affiliation (for example, insufficient education). Meanings associated with a place, a given context, rather than abstract concepts. The speaker believes that the listener knows what he is talking about. This is a very limited vocabulary that requires minimal knowledge of individual experience.

The code developed is person-centered and does not emphasize individual rather than group experiences. The point is that the goals are clear to the audience. This requires a more differentiated vocabulary. This linguistic code is available to all educated people, whose advantage is that they can use both codes, unlike the groups described above.

Thus, every person can improve their social coding to one degree or another. This idea received a vivid artistic solution in B. Shaw’s play “Pygmalion”, the heroine of which changes her social position due to a change, first of all, in her speech behavior.

Speech as a means of confirming social status

As we have already emphasized, in socially oriented communication. However, there is the following functional dependence. Language, of course, is one of the tools for confirming the social status of participants in communication. Let's look at this issue in more detail.

For an adequate understanding of the speech message, the participants in the communique have different meanings denoting social relationships. In addition to direct representations, in which socio-symbolic means of demonstrating social status and role repertoires are widely used.

Such verbal and symbolic means include the choice of form of treatment. The form of address can reveal the social hierarchy, and in the case of equality of social status, express a personal attitude towards the partner. In this case, special words may be used to designate a person, for example: “Your Highness”, “Your Honor”, ​​“Sir”. By changing the forms of address, we can emphasize the formality or informality of the relationship. Let's compare the address: “ladies and gentlemen”, “comrades”, “friends”, “hello, dear”, “dear”. For example, “Hello”, “Good guys”, “Hello”, “Salute”, “Bye”, “All the best”, etc.

For example, “Ivan Ivanovich”, “Comrade Ivanov”, “Citizen Ivanov”. This means that the country can have the status of a free citizen.

Confession in speech to improve social status. It often happens that people choose roles: “assistant director” instead of “ticket attendant” or “health care worker” instead of “garbage man”, etc.

One of the most important and significant means is also the note that we “adapt” to our language if we like it. Parents often adapt their language to "baby talk" when talking to their child. We can emphasize differences in our speech. For example, French Canadians prefer their politicians to make public speeches in English with a strong French accent, even if they are able to speak perfect English.

Finally, the choice of style is also one of the most important social and symbolic means. Expression: high (the correct use of words and sentence construction is emphasized, perceived as official, more formal, distant) and low (colloquial speech, rich in slang words, using slang, perceived as informal, friendly); influential and non-influential styles.

Speaking in language, certain verbal techniques used can contribute to the formation of one’s own image in the eyes of others, for example, more confident, more influential, and therefore more controllable situations. Powerful speakers use the following forms of utterance: “Let's have dinner tonight” instead of “I think we could have dinner tonight,” so that the structure of the sentence itself seems to direct the action.

Communication researchers mention several so-called non-influential forms of communication:

1. evasive phrases reflecting subjectivity: “I think”, “I guess”, etc.
2. hesitation, linguistic “stuttering” (using disjunctive interjections such as “e”, “um”, “you know”, “okay”): “Hmm, could you spare a minute?”; “Well, we could try”; “I want... well, if you can offer...”
3. polite forms - “sorry...”; "I'm sorry…";
4. use of final questions: “We can start already, what do you think?”; “It's hot here, isn't it?”;
5. intense words: “excellent”, “wonderful”, “amazing”, “very”.

Patterns of speech behavior in mass communication

By addressing a wide audience, public speaking is another level of socially oriented communication. Note the most common speech communication patterns at this level.

Communication with the public requires us to turn to special linguistic consciousnesses. A common language with a mass address is evidence of a willingness to use a standard obtained in a certain field of speech (say, in a scientific or professional field).

This standard should be consistent with a standard "single" and "unique" address that should be consistent with general or group language use obligations. The likelihood of incompatibility between the sociocultural experiences of participants. Wonderful, standard, expressive expression in the standard. For example, expressions such as “cold war”, “armed forces”, “new thinking”, “freeze”, “perestroika”, existing metaphors almost immediately turned into socio-political standard terms.

Conclusion

Thus, the verbal formation of socially significant statuses of participants, rather strict control over formally sent speech messages and the reduction of the personal beginning of speech behavior are of paramount importance. In socially oriented communication, they are determined by certain conditions. All this is connected with the situation - one way or another, but the interaction and communication of the participants in communication is difficult. This suggests that we are talking about interpersonal interaction.

Features of speech communication

Speech today is the most important mechanism of human communication. It goes from individual to one individual, several or many. The communication process itself can be simplified in this way: on the one hand, there is a speaking subject (sender of information), and on the other, a recipient of information or a listening subject (addressee). The sender and the recipient interact to broadcast information presented in the form of a sequence of signals consisting of a set of letters, sounds, etc. To receive information, there must be a certain system of adequacy of elementary messages and reality, which is familiar to both the speaker and the listener. Such a system of correspondences is called a language system or language.

The difference between language and speech lies in the presence of categories in language systems, while speech contains a continuous series (continuum). It follows that the communication process consists of six components: contact and message, sender and recipient, code and reality. The human personality is always the source of speech, since it is not the person who speaks, but his personality.

Features of verbal communication are marked by goals, of which there can be many. After all, they have a close relationship with the individual’s needs for communicative influence on surrounding individuals, for example, the desire to force a certain action to be performed, to convince of something, to evoke some emotion, etc. They also distinguish between the goals of the speech process, which are not in the general sense a communicative interaction, for example, a prisoner in a punishment cell pronounces a speech not for communication, but in order not to forget words, the construction of sentences and their sound.

The main component of any target setting for the speech process should be an additional aspect of morality, which excludes conscious deception, lies, disinformation, etc.

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First of all, you need to find out what etiquette is. Summarizing most definitions, we can conclude that etiquette is a set of generally accepted rules regarding norms of behavior, appearance, and communication between people. In turn, speech etiquette is certain linguistic norms of communication established in society. This concept appeared in France during the reign of Louis XIV. Court ladies and gentlemen were given special “labels” - cards on which recommendations were written on how to behave at the table at a banquet, when there was a ball, a gala reception of foreign guests, etc. In this “forced” way, the foundations of behavior were laid, which Over time they became part of the common people. From time immemorial and to this day, the culture of each ethnic group has had and still has its own special norms of communication and behavior in society. These rules help to tactfully enter into verbal contact with a person without hurting his personal feelings and emotions. Features of speech etiquette lie in a number of linguistic and social properties: 1. The inevitability of fulfilling etiquette forms. This means that if a person wants to be a full-fledged part of society (a group of people), then he must comply with generally accepted norms of behavior. Otherwise, society may reject him - people will not want to communicate with him or maintain close contact. 2. Speech etiquette is public politeness. It is always flattering to communicate with a well-mannered person, and it is especially pleasant to reciprocate with a “kind” word. There are often cases when people are unpleasant to each other, but end up in the same team. This is where speech etiquette comes in handy, because all people want comfortable communication without swear words and harsh expressions. 3. The need to comply with speech formulas. The speech action of a cultured person cannot do without a sequence of stages. The beginning of a conversation always begins with a greeting, followed by the main part - the conversation. The dialogue ends with farewell and nothing else. 4. Smoothing out conflicts and conflict situations. Saying “sorry” or “excuse me” at the right time will help avoid unnecessary conflicts. 5. The ability to show the level of relations between interlocutors. For people in a close circle, as a rule, warmer words of greeting and communication in general are used (“Hello,” “I’m so glad to see you,” etc.). Those who don’t know each other simply adhere to the “official” (“Hello”, “Good afternoon”). The manner of communicating with people is always a direct indicator of a person’s level of education. To become a worthy member of society, you need to develop communication skills, without which it will be very difficult in the modern world. From the moment of birth, the child begins to receive the necessary knowledge to develop skills and abilities. Conversational skill is the basis of conscious communication, without which it is difficult to exist. Nowadays it is given a lot of attention not only in the family, but also in educational institutions (school, university). Communication culture is understood as a model of speech behavior that must be relied upon when speaking with another individual. Its full formation depends on many factors: the environment in which a person grew up, the level of education of his parents, the quality of the education received, personal aspirations. Forming a culture of communication skills is a long and complex process. It is based on a number of goals and objectives, having achieved which, you can fully master the skill of tactful and polite communication with people in secular society and at home. They are aimed (goals and objectives) at developing the following qualities: 1. sociability as an individual personality trait; 2. the formation of communicative relationships in society; 3. lack of isolation from society; 4. social activity; 5. improving academic performance; 6. development of an individual’s rapid adaptation to a variety of activities (play, study, etc.). 7. Every person sees and feels the invisible connection between the culture of speech and etiquette. It seems that these concepts are absolutely close and equal to each other, but this is not entirely true. First, we need to define what culture is in the broad sense. 8. Culture is understood as the presence of certain communicative qualities and knowledge in a person, good reading, and as a result a sufficient vocabulary, awareness of a number of issues, the presence of education, as well as the ability to behave in society and alone with oneself. 9. In turn, the culture of conversation or communication is the individual’s way of speaking, his ability to conduct a conversation, and express his thoughts in a structured manner. This concept is very difficult to understand, so there is still a lot of debate about the accuracy of this definition. In Russia and abroad, this branch of linguistics as a science is engaged in the development of rules of communication and their systematization. Speech culture also means the study and application of the rules and norms of written and oral speech, punctuation, accentology, ethics and other areas of linguistics. From a scientific point of view, speech is defined as “correct” or “incorrect”. This implies the correct use of words in various linguistic situations. Examples: • “Go home already! "(correctly said - go); • “Put bread on the table? "(the word “lay” is not used without prefixes, so it is necessary to use only such correct forms - put, lay out, impose, etc.) • If a person calls himself cultured, then it is assumed that he has a number of distinctive qualities: he has great or above average vocabulary, the ability to correctly and competently express one’s thoughts, the desire to improve the level of knowledge in the field of linguistics and ethical standards. From ancient times to this day, literary speech has been the standard of etiquette and highly cultural communication. The basis of the correct Russian language lies in classical works. Therefore, we can say with confidence that speech etiquette is completely interconnected with the culture of communication. Without a high-quality education, good upbringing and a special desire to improve communicative qualities, a person will not be able to fully observe the culture of speech, since he will simply be unfamiliar with it. The environment has a special influence on the development of an individual’s linguistic culture. Speech habits are “practiced” among friends and family. Moreover, speech culture is directly related to such an ethical category as politeness, which, in turn, also characterizes the speaker (a polite person or a rude person). In this regard, we can say that people who do not comply with communication norms show their interlocutor a lack of culture, their bad manners and impoliteness. For example, a person did not say hello at the beginning of a conversation, uses profanity, swear words, or does not use the respectful address “you” when it was expected and implied. Speech etiquette is closely intertwined with the culture of communication. To improve the level of speech, it is necessary not only to study the template formulas of official dialogue, but also to improve the quality of knowledge by reading classical literature and communicating with polite and highly intelligent people. Speech etiquette performs a number of important functions. Without them, it is difficult to form an idea about it, as well as to understand how it manifests itself at the moment of communication between people. One of the main functions of language is communicative, because the basis of speech etiquette is communication. In turn, it consists of a number of other tasks, without which it would not be able to function fully: • Social (aimed at establishing contact). This implies the initial establishment of a connection with the interlocutor, maintaining attention. Sign language plays a special role at the stage of establishing contact. As a rule, people look eye to eye and smile. Usually this is done unconsciously, on a subconscious level, in order to show the joy of meeting and starting a dialogue, they extend their hand for a handshake (if they get to know each other closely). • Connotative. This function is aimed at showing politeness towards each other. This applies to both the beginning of the dialogue and the entire communication in general. • Regulatory. It has a direct connection with the above. From the name it is clear that it regulates relationships between people during communication. In addition, its purpose is to convince the interlocutor of something, to encourage him to act or, conversely, to prohibit him from doing something. • Emotional. Each conversation has its own level of emotionality, which is set from the very beginning. It depends on the degree of acquaintance of people, the room in which they are located (a public place or a cozy table in the corner of a cafe), as well as on the mood of each individual at the time of speech. Some linguists supplement this list with the following functions: • Imperative. It involves the influence of opponents on each other during a conversation through gestures and facial expressions. With the help of open poses, you can win over a person, scare or put pressure on him, “increasing his volume” (the speaker raises his arms high and wide, spreads his legs, looks up). • Discussive and polemical. In other words, it’s a dispute. Based on the above functions, the following series of properties of speech etiquette are distinguished: 1. thanks to it, a person can feel like a full-fledged part of the team; 2. it helps to establish communication connections between people; 3. helps to find out information about the interlocutor; 4. with its help you can show your degree of respect for your opponent; 5. Speech etiquette helps to establish a positive emotional mood, which helps prolong the conversation and establish more friendly contact. The above functions and properties once again prove that speech etiquette is the basis of communication between people, which helps a person start a conversation and end it tactfully. If you turn to the modern dictionary of the Russian language, you can find a definition of speech as a form of communication between people using sounds, which form the basis of words from which sentences are built, and gestures. In turn, speech can be internal (“dialogue in the head”) and external. External communication is divided into written and oral. Oral communication takes the form of dialogue or monologue. Moreover, written speech is secondary, and oral speech is primary. Dialogue is a process of communication between two or more individuals for the purpose of exchanging information, impressions, experiences, and emotions. Monologue is the speech of one person. It can be addressed to the audience, to oneself, or to the reader. Written speech is more conservative in structure than oral speech. She also strictly “requires” the use of punctuation marks, the purpose of which is to convey the exact intent and emotional component. Transmitting words in writing is a complex and interesting process. Before writing anything, a person thinks about what exactly he wants to say and convey to the reader, and then how to write it down correctly (grammatically and stylistically). Audible verbal communication is spoken language. It is situational, limited by time and space where the speaker directly speaks. Oral communication can be characterized by such categories as: • content (cognitive, material, emotional, motivating and activity-based); • interaction techniques (role communication, business, social, etc.); • purpose of communication. If we talk about speech in a secular society, then in this situation people communicate on topics that are prescribed in speech etiquette. In essence, this is empty, pointless and polite communication. To some extent it can be called mandatory. People may perceive a person’s behavior as an insult in their direction if he does not communicate or greet anyone at a social reception or corporate event. In a business conversation, the main task is to achieve agreement and approval on the part of the opponent on any issue or matter of interest. Audible verbal communication is spoken language. It is situational, limited by time and space where the speaker directly speaks. Oral communication can be characterized by such categories as: • content (cognitive, material, emotional, motivating and activity-based); • interaction techniques (role communication, business, social, etc.); • purpose of communication. If we talk about speech in a secular society, then in this situation people communicate on topics that are prescribed in speech etiquette. In essence, this is empty, pointless and polite communication. To some extent it can be called mandatory. People may perceive a person’s behavior as an insult in their direction if he does not communicate or greet anyone at a social reception or corporate event. In a business conversation, the main task is to achieve agreement and approval on the part of the opponent on any issue or matter of interest. Sometimes nonverbal communication can reveal more than an individual is trying to say. In this regard, when communicating with an unfamiliar person, management or colleague, you need to monitor your gestures and movements. Non-verbal transmission of information occurs almost subconsciously and can influence the emotional tone of the conversation. Body language includes gestures, postures, and facial expressions. In turn, gestures can be individual (they can be associated with physiological characteristics, habits), emotional, ritual (when a person crosses himself, prays, etc.) and generally accepted (extending his hand to shake hands). Human activity leaves an important mark on body language. It can also change depending on environmental factors. Thanks to gestures and postures, you can understand your opponent’s readiness to communicate. If he uses open gestures (legs or arms are not crossed, does not stand half-turned), then this means that the person is not closed and wants to communicate. Otherwise (in closed positions), it is better not to bother you, but to communicate another time. A conversation with an official or boss is not always carried out when you really want it. Therefore, you need to control your body to avoid unpleasant questions. Masters of oratory advise not to clench your palms into fists, not to hide your hands back (perceived as a threat), try not to close yourself off (cross your legs, it is especially unethical to cross your legs in such a way that the toe “pokes” at the interlocutor). During the speech act, it is better to avoid touching the nose, eyebrows, and earlobe. This may be perceived as a gesture indicating a lie in the words. Particular attention should be paid to the facial muscles. What’s in the soul is on the face. Of course, when you talk to a close friend, you can let go of your emotions, but in the business sphere this is unacceptable. During interviews, negotiations and business meetings, it is better not to compress or bite your lips (this is how a person expresses his distrust and concern), try to look into the eyes or at the audience as a whole. If the gaze is constantly turned to the side or down, then this is how a person expresses his disinterest and fatigue. According to the rules of speech etiquette with strangers and in an official setting, it is better to behave with restraint, without unnecessary emotional leaks. As for ordinary everyday communication with friends and family, in this case you can allow yourself to relax so that your gestures and postures echo the words spoken. Speech etiquette requires a person to comply with certain norms, since without them the culture of communication itself would not exist. The rules are divided into two groups: strictly prohibitive and more recommendatory in nature (they are determined by the situation and the place in which communication takes place). Speech behavior also has its own regulations. The content of speech norms includes: • compliance of the language with literary norms; • maintaining phasing (first there is a greeting, then the main part of the conversation, then the end of the conversation); • avoidance of swear words, rudeness, tactless and disrespectful behavior; • choosing the appropriate tone and manner of communication for the situation; • use of accurate terminology and professionalism without errors. The regulations of speech etiquette list the following rules of communication: • in your speech you must try to avoid “empty” words that do not carry meaning, as well as monotonous speech patterns and expressions; Communication should take place at a level accessible to the interlocutor, using understandable words and phrases. • during the dialogue, let your opponent speak, do not interrupt him and listen to him to the end; • the most important thing is to be polite and tactful. At the heart of any conversation there are a number of norms and rules that must be adhered to. In speech etiquette, the concept of speech formulas is distinguished. They help “decompose” the conversation between people into stages. The following stages of conversation are distinguished: • Beginning of communication (greeting the interlocutor or getting to know him). Here, as a rule, a person chooses the form of address himself. It all depends on the gender of the people entering into the dialogue, their age and emotional state. If these are teenagers, then they can say to each other “Hi! "and that will be fine. In the case when people who have a conversation have a different age group, it is better to use the words “hello”, “good afternoon/evening”. When these are old acquaintances, communication can begin very emotionally: “How glad I am to see you! ", "Long time no see! " There are no rigid regulations at this stage, if this is ordinary everyday communication, but in the case of business meetings it is necessary to adhere to a “high” style. • The main conversation. In this part, the development of dialogue depends on the situation. This can be an ordinary fleeting meeting on the street, a solemn event (wedding, anniversary, birthday), funeral or office conversation. In the event that this is some kind of holiday, the communication formulas are divided into two branches-the invitation of the interlocutor to the celebration or a significant event and congratulations (congratulatory speech with wishes). • Invitation. In this situation, it is better to use the following words: “I would like to invite you”, “I will be glad to see you”, “Please accept my invitation”, etc. • Wishes. Here the speech formulas are as follows: “Accept my congratulations from the bottom of my heart”, “Allow you to congratulate you”, “On behalf of the whole team I wish ...” and pr • The sad events associated with the loss of a loved one, etc. It is very important that the encouraging words do not sound Dry and officially, without proper emotional coloring. It is very ridiculous and inappropriate with a smile and active gestures to communicate with a person in such a grief. In these days difficult for humans, the following phrases must be used: “Accept my condolences”, “I sincerely sympathize with your grief”, “Creeping the Spirit”, etc. • Working office everyday life. It should be understood that communication with a colleague, subordinate and leader will have various formulas of speech etiquette. In the dialogue with each of the listed people, words compliments, tips, encouraging, a request for a service, etc. • Councils and requests can be found. When a person advises the opponent, the following templates are used: “I would like to advise you ...”, “If you will, I will give you advice”, “I advise you”, etc. It is easy to agree that it is sometimes difficult to ask someone about the service And uncomfortable. A well -educated person will feel a little awkwardness. In such a situation, the following words are used: “Can I ask you about ...”, “Do not consider it rudeness, but I need your help”, “Please help me”, etc. • The individual experiences the same emotions when he needs to give refusal. In order for this to be polite and ethical, you should use such speech formulas: “I'm asking me to excuse me, but I have to refuse”, “I'm afraid I can’t help you”, “I'm sorry, but I don’t know how to help you”, etc. • Gratitude. . It is more pleasant to express gratitude, but it also needs to be correctly presented: “I sincerely thank you”, “I am very grateful to you”, “thank you”, etc. • Compliments and words of incentive also require proper presentation. It is important that a person understands to whom he is a compliment, since the leadership can be perceived as flattery, and an unfamiliar person will consider it for rudeness or mockery. Therefore, the following expressions are regulated here: “You are an excellent companion”, “Your skills in this case helped us a lot”, “You look good today”, etc. • Do not forget about the form of contacting a person. Many sources indicate that at work and with unfamiliar people it is better to adhere to the form of “you”, since “you” is a more personal and everyday circulation • Completion of communication. After the main part of the conversation approached its climax, the third stage comes - the logical end of the dialogue. Farewell to a person also has different forms. It can be the usual wish of a good day or good health. Sometimes the completion of the dialogue can end with the words of hope for a new meeting: “See you,” “I hope I see you not the last time”, “I would very much like to meet you again”, etc. Very often doubts are expressed that the interlocutors once Or they will meet again: “I’m not sure if we will see each other again”, “Do not remember dashing”, “I will only remember you good about you.”

Autoclitics

Autoclitic is a form of speech behavior that modifies the functions of other forms of speech behavior. For example, "I think it's raining" has an autoclitic "I think" that moderates the strength of the statement "it's raining." An example of studies that involved autoclitics would be Lodhi and Greer (1989).

One form of autoclitic of greatest importance in the development of language is Skinner's concept of the autoclitic frame. Autoclitic frames help to quickly learn new speech behavior and build rules. Stemmer (2000) holds: “(1) Events are responsible for the productive nature of listener behavior and, through the transfer effect, speech behavior in general (2) Together with the ostensive event, events are responsible for most aspects. probably even for all aspects of early listener behavior. (3) Because visually evident learning does not require repeated reinforcement of specific responses to vocal stimuli, events are the primary cause of bursting at the onset of vocal behavior."

Course work "Norms of speech communication"

Content

Introduction

Currently, speech behavior, being a complex phenomenon that largely affects the social side of society, is included in the field of research interests of such disciplines as functional stylistics, speech culture, rhetoric, etc. Currently, issues of studying speech and speech behavior are being developed with positions of linguistic anthropology, and are studied within the framework of such sciences as psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, cultural linguistics and pragmalinguistics. The general approach that unites these directions is that speech behavior is a specific type of human behavior, which consists of speech acts and is based on the use of language, realized in speech. However, each science identifies aspects of this concept that are relevant and relevant specifically for its tasks.

The topic has been repeatedly considered by many authors, not only from the point of view of philology, but also from the point of view of psychology and sociology. I believe that this problem has not yet been studied in sufficient detail, but the norms are constantly changing, and there is no consensus on them. Many books are devoted to communication norms and speech etiquette, since compliance or non-compliance with these norms has a huge impact on a person’s position in society.

Based on the relevance of the problem, we formulated
research
topic “Compliance with the norms of speech behavior as one of the most important conditions for successful communication.”

Research problem:

What are the ways to comply with the norms of speech behavior in successful communication?

Purpose of the study:

Theoretically substantiate the norms of speech behavior among students.

Object of study:

Activation of speech behavior in students.

Subject of study:

Ways to activate speech behavior in students.

Based on our research, we put forward the following hypothesis:

Subject to compliance with the norms of speech etiquette, students can improve the quality of their speech in a certain situation.

In accordance with the purpose, object and subject of the study, we formulated the following tasks:

1. Analyze the psychological and pedagogical literature on the research problem.

2. Reveal the psychological and pedagogical nature of speech behavior on the research problem.

3. Consider the norms of speech etiquette among students.

4. Develop a booklet on the research topic

Research methods:

1.Theoretical (comparative analysis, analysis and synthesis, thought experiment)

2. Empirical (observation, experiment, graphical methods, document analysis)

3.Statistical methods (study of the subject, generalization of knowledge)

Possible risks of the project

is to identify speech aggression among students.

A research project consists of an introduction, two paragraphs, stages of work on the project, a product, possible risks of the project, a conclusion, a list of references, and applications.

In the introduction

the relevance of the research topic is substantiated, the scientific apparatus of the research is determined.

In the first paragraph “Speech behavior

“The concepts of “speech behavior” and “features of speech communication” are considered.

In the second paragraph “Speech etiquette and its norms”

the norms of speech etiquette among students are analyzed.”

In custody

the main conclusions of the study are outlined, directions and prospects for further study of this problem are outlined.

In the application

a sample survey of students at a pedagogical college is presented.

Overall volume

an individual project is 25 pages of typewritten text. The list of sources used includes 15 items

Chapter 1. Speech behavior

A person’s speech behavior is a complex phenomenon; it is associated with the characteristics of his upbringing, place of birth and education, with the environment in which he habitually communicates, with all the characteristics characteristic of him as an individual and as a representative of a social group, as well as of a national community. Speech behavior, as already mentioned, is stereotypical, habitual, therefore it is expressed in stereotypical statements, speech cliches, on the one hand, and in some purely individual speech manifestations of a given personality, on the other. To this we must add non-speech (non-verbal) means of communication - gestures, facial expressions, tonal and phonation features. In other words, speech behavior reveals a linguistic personality belonging to a given time, a given country, a given region, a given social (including professional) group, a given family. There is a lot in common and a lot that is special. A person who is professionally involved in speech activity and accustomed to public speaking (for example, a lecturer, journalist, radio and television announcer, teacher) feels free in communication, his speech behavior reveals him as a person who is fluent in speech, gesture, and can concentrate the attention of listeners . On the contrary, someone who is not connected with the “speech” profession, when he finds himself in front of a microphone, behaves constrained, his facial expressions are unnatural, he does not know where to put his hands, he painfully searches for words... But sometimes this is not the case. An original personality often finds a way to communicate interestingly about himself and his affairs, without difficulty in speaking and revealing looseness and courage in his behavior.

Analysis of the characteristics of verbal communication in social interaction is associated with distinguishing the following levels of social communication: communication of people as representatives of certain groups (national, age, professional, status, etc.). In this case, the determining factor in the speech behavior of two or more people is their group affiliation or role position (for example, leader - subordinate, consultant - client, teacher - student, etc.); transmission of information to many people: direct in the case of public speech or indirect in the case of the media.

First of all, it should be noted that in social interaction the servicing nature of speech activity is clearly expressed; here speech is always subordinated to a non-speech goal, aimed at organizing the joint activities of people. This feature predetermines a much stricter (in comparison with interpersonal interaction) regulation of speech behavior. Although norms of speech behavior belong to the sphere of tacit agreements between members of society, it is in the sphere of socially oriented communication that their observance is accompanied by much stricter control. The described conditions are called the “principle of cooperation”, i.e. a requirement for interlocutors to act in a manner consistent with the accepted goal and direction of the conversation.

In other words, speech behavior reveals a linguistic personality belonging to a given age and time, a given country, a given region, a given social (including professional) group, a given family. Each person finds himself in a variety of role-playing and speech situations and constantly navigates the communication environment, his partner, and the third parties present. He constantly chooses this or that speech manner, this or that behavior.

In a person’s speech behavior, there is a constant “execution” of his inherent role characteristics and “playing out” of variable situational roles, orientation in the general social position in the roles of the addressee, assessment of the formality or informality of the communication environment and in personal relationships with a communication partner, if, of course, there are any there is when they communicate with a person they know. In general, such status relationships can be designated as follows: boss - subordinate, teacher-pupil, teacher-student, parent-child. An unlimited variety of texts is born from a limited number of building units of language. The dependencies here are very diverse: we can communicate in writing or orally, contact or remotely, in the form of dialogue (polylogue) or monologue, with or without the help of a mediating apparatus, engage in mass communication or communicate interpersonally, in an official or friendly environment, play the role of the head a family or a subordinate member of it, a chatterbox or a silent one, a boss, a manager, a colleague, a subordinate, while being a person of a certain gender, age, with a certain educational level, finding himself either a passenger, or a buyer, or a pedestrian, or a patient - and so on ad infinitum. It all depends on who is speaking, to whom, about what, when, where, why, why.

Each of us can, by our personal actions, determine almost unmistakably the degree of their upbringing, the prevalence of their habit of thinking or not thinking about the interests of others. And every era has its own style, every society has its own rules of behavior, but there are universal human values, and it is on their basis that the culture of any nation develops. An integral part of culture is etiquette, which has evolved over centuries and is rooted in the sphere of morality.

Chapter 2. Speech etiquette and its norms

One of the elements of speech culture is speech etiquette.

Speech etiquette is “nationally specific rules of speech behavior, implemented in a system of stable formulas and expressions in situations of “polite” contact with an interlocutor accepted and prescribed by society. Such situations are: addressing the interlocutor and attracting his attention, greeting, introduction, farewell, apology, gratitude, etc.”

The works of many modern linguists and methodologists are devoted to the issues of speech etiquette (A.A. Akishina, B.V. Busheleva, V.G. Kostomarov, L.II. Krysin, T.A. Ladyzhenskaya, M.S. Soloveichik, N.I. Formanovskaya and others).

The most accurate definition of speech etiquette is the statement of Natalya Ivanovna Formanovskaya: “Speech etiquette refers to the regulating rules of speech behavior, a system of nationally specific stereotypical, stable communication formulas accepted and prescribed by society to establish contact between interlocutors, maintain and interrupt contact in the chosen tonality.”

The main functions of speech etiquette are communicative, establishing contact, calling, attracting attention, the function of politeness, etc. Etiquette is a prescription based on the fact that if a person wants to occupy a certain place in a given society, then he must, by his behavior (and speech in including) to meet the expectations of this society, Etiquette helps to get around sharp corners, smooth out contradictions with etiquette formulas or etiquette behavior.

Speech etiquette in the narrow sense of understanding this term is used in etiquette communication situations when performing certain etiquette actions. These actions can have the meaning of motivation (request, advice, proposal, command, order, demand), reaction (reactive speech acts: agreement, disagreement, objection , refusal, permission), social contact in terms of establishing contact (apology, gratitude, congratulations), its continuation and completion.

N.I. Formanovskaya connected the formulas of speech etiquette with “social strokes,” i.e., certain approving actions of partners. In this case, each etiquette speech action is equated to one “stroking”. For example, a greeting is one “stroking”, a question about business is a second “stroking”, a compliment is a third “stroking”, etc. The principle of harmonization of communication requires that communicants exchange the same number of “strokes”.

Etiquette formulas allow you to express a thought, a request, an intention not only politely, but also while maintaining the required distance. Etiquette is a lifeline in situations of communication with strangers or unfamiliar people - when you need to find common topics, when you need to relieve tension and conflict, when you need to soften negative information, when you need to establish a certain distance, when you need to move on to another topic, etc.

Speech etiquette, understood in a broad sense, is not limited only to speech formulas in the etiquette framework of communication, but serves as a means of organizing and maintaining non-conflict communication throughout its entire duration. In this regard, the main purpose of etiquette is to help people not to conflict with each other, to perform actions, including speech, necessary to enter into contact, maintain it and leave contact.

Ethical norms embody the system of protection of moral values ​​in every culture and regulate the forms of their manifestation in speech. Ethical standards prescribe the need for speech to comply with the moral laws of society, as well as the inner world of a person, his perception of other people, and understanding of his place in life and in a given society.

The laws of ethics are based on the task of cohesion, uniting members of a given society; speech performs an important social function in this regard, therefore ethical laws are the basis of a culture of communication.

Communication norms are based on the principles of cooperation, expediency, harmonization and structuring.

Communication norms require taking into account the communication situation and correctly assessing it; strive for communicative cooperation in the communication process; choose the right tone of communication, show interest in the presentation of information and in the process of exchanging information.

One of the most important qualities of speech, constructed in compliance with ethical and communicative norms, is politeness as a norm not only of a speech, but also of a general cultural nature.

The norms of speech etiquette presuppose the ability to choose accurate, appropriate, appropriate and effective means of speech etiquette in a specific communication situation.

Compliance with the norms of speech etiquette in the process of communication testifies not only to communicative skills, but also to the level of culture of those communicating in general, because speech etiquette reflects the level of a person’s spirituality and is an indicator of his moral character.

Thus, ethical and communicative norms reflect the level of morality of a person and society as a whole, emphasize the degree to which a person has formed moral and ethical principles, and ultimately are an indicator of the level of his general culture.

As researchers write, one of the main trends in the historical development of the national language is the tendency towards unity, which is ensured by the general recognition of norms (phonetic, lexical, grammatical). “Any violation of the historical requirement of purity of speech is an inevitable weakening of the linguistic unity of the nation,” we read in the book by B.N. Golovin “How to speak correctly: Notes on the culture of Russian speech”

To maintain purity of speech, one should carefully use clericalisms, cliches, avoid the use of slang words and expressions, dialectisms, professionalisms, and it is appropriate to use foreign language vocabulary.

Speech is also clogged with parasitic words, which deprive the expression of expressiveness, accuracy and impact, and make it difficult to perceive.

Swearing and vulgar words (foul language), rudeness and impoliteness of speech indicate disrespect of the speaker (writer) for the interlocutor, manifestation of aggressiveness in the process of communication, which, as already mentioned, leads to a violation of ethical standards, to speech hooliganism, according to B.N. . Golovin.

In this regard, let us once again emphasize the role of communication culture, speech culture in the education of such moral qualities as politeness, tact, and the ability to take into account the mood of the addressee.

What conditions that contribute to the effective exchange of information and the implementation of a communicative goal should be taken into account when organizing speech communication? Experts include such conditions as the need for communication, communicative interest; attuned to the world of the interlocutor, the closeness of the speaker’s worldview; the ability of the listener to penetrate into the speaker’s intention; external circumstances of strangers (physical condition), knowledge of the norms of etiquette speech communication, etc.

It is very important to create a positive communication climate that helps establish contact and rapport during the communication process. According to foreign scientists, the amount of information transmitted and its accuracy increases in an atmosphere of trust and openness between participants in communication.

The creation of such a climate is facilitated by the observance by the participants of the dialogue of the principle of cooperation G.P. Grice and the principle of politeness of J.N. Leach, establishing partnerships, as well as the application of a number of psychological principles of communication formulated in the scientific and methodological literature.

Thus, the communicative qualities of speech become its advantages if they are successfully implemented when creating an utterance.

Consequently, the culture of speech, the culture of communication, the culture of speech activity are ensured by the ability (and most importantly, the desire) to make a statement accurate, logical, accessible, expressive, etc., which is due to the richness and variety of linguistic and speech means available to those communicating.

Stages of work on the project

1. Information and analytical:

1) immersion in the project-analysis of the topic;

2) planning work on the project, drawing up content;

3) selection of literature;

4) drawing up an introduction, defining the conceptual apparatus;

5) systematization of theoretical material in order to determine the characteristics of reading. Methods: at this stage the theoretical method (analysis and synthesis) is used.

2. Organizational and executive:

structuring theoretical material - compiling a booklet.

3. Control and correction:

1) Correction of theoretical material on the topic “Compliance with the norms of speech behavior as one of the most important conditions for successful communication”;

2) booklet design, printing;

3) presentation for the booklet, project defense

Project product

Research product

is a booklet on the topic “Speech etiquette, its rules and formulas,” which describes a list of rules of speech behavior.

Speech etiquette formulas are certain words, phrases and fixed expressions used for three stages of conversation:

§ starting a conversation (greeting/introduction)

§ main part

§ final part of the conversation

Starting a conversation and ending it

Any conversation, as a rule, begins with a greeting; it can be verbal and non-verbal. The order of greeting also matters: the youngest greets the elder first, the man greets the woman, the young girl greets the adult man, the junior greets the elder.

At the end of the conversation, formulas for ending communication and parting are used. These formulas are expressed in the form of wishes (all the best, all the best, goodbye), hopes for further meetings (see you tomorrow, I hope to see you soon, we’ll call you), or doubts about further meetings (goodbye, farewell).

Main part of the conversation

Following the greeting, a conversation begins. Speech etiquette provides for three main types of situations in which various speech formulas of communication are used: solemn, mournful and work situations. The first phrases spoken after the greeting are called the beginning of the conversation. There are often situations when the main part of the conversation consists only of the beginning and the ending of the conversation that follows.

A solemn atmosphere and the approach of an important event require the use of speech patterns in the form of an invitation or congratulations. The situation can be either official or informal, and the situation determines what formulas of speech etiquette will be used in the conversation.

A mournful atmosphere in connection with events that bring grief suggests condolences expressed emotionally, not routinely or dryly. In addition to condolences, the interlocutor often needs consolation or sympathy. Sympathy and consolation can take the form of empathy, confidence in a successful outcome, and be accompanied by advice.

In everyday life, the work environment also requires the use of speech etiquette formulas. Brilliant or, conversely, improper performance of assigned tasks can become a reason for gratitude or censure. When carrying out orders, an employee may need advice, for which it will be necessary to make a request to a colleague. There is also a need to approve someone else’s proposal, give permission for implementation or a reasoned refusal.

The request must be extremely polite in form (but without ingratiation) and understandable to the addressee; the request must be made delicately. When making a request, it is desirable to avoid the negative form and use the affirmative. Advice should be given uncategorically; giving advice will be an incentive to action if it is given in a neutral, delicate form.

It is customary to express gratitude to the interlocutor for fulfilling a request, providing a service, or providing useful advice. Also an important element in speech etiquette is a compliment. It can be used at the beginning, middle and end of a conversation.

Possible project risks

Conclusion

Speech etiquette is a mirror that reflects the level of a person’s internal culture. It is necessary to learn the rules of speech behavior. Showing good manners should be a common norm of behavior. A cultured person needs not only to know and observe the norms of etiquette. The ability to present yourself and make a good impression will allow you to gain confidence and feel free in any society. Possession of speech etiquette contributes to the acquisition of authority, generates trust and respect. Strict adherence to speech etiquette in business communication leaves a favorable impression and maintains a positive reputation. Cultural speech is a sign of a person’s intelligence and education. Slang words, rude expressions - all this only demonstrates the lack of proper upbringing.

Thus, the problem “What are the ways to comply with the norms of speech behavior in successful communication” has been solved.

The goal of the study “Theoretically substantiate the norms of speech behavior among students” has been achieved.

Tasks to achieve the goal have been implemented.

The hypothesis “Subject to compliance with the norms of speech etiquette, students can improve the quality of their speech in a certain situation” is confirmed

In the future, this topic should be continued to be researched, work on the product should continue, and the material should be studied in depth.

List of sources used

1. Vvedenskaya, L.A. Culture and art of speech. Modern rhetoric / L. A. Vvedenskaya, L. G. Pavlova. – Rostov n/d.: Phoenix, 1998

2. Golub, I. B. Russian language and speech culture / I. B. Golub. – M.: Logos, 2003.

3. Vvedenskaya, L.A., Speech culture / L.A. Vvedenskaya, N. P.

4. I.B. Golub Russian language and culture of speech. Moscow "Logos", 2003.

5. Russian language and speech culture: Textbook for universities / A.I. Dunev, M.Ya. Dymarsky, A.Yu. Kozhevnikov et al. Ed. V.D. Chernyak. - M.: Higher School: St. Petersburg, 2002.

6. Vvedenskaya L.A. A culture of speech. Series "Textbooks, teaching aids". Rostov n/a: “Phoenix”, 2001.

7. Formanovskaya, Natalya Ivanovna. Speech etiquette and communication culture / N. I. Formanovskaya. - M.: Higher. school, 1989.

8. Akishina, A.A. Russian speech etiquette [Text] / A.A. Akishina, N.I. Formanovskaya - M.: Librokom, 2009. - 375 p.

9. Vinokur, T.G. Speaker and listener. Variants of speech behavior [Text] / T.G. Vinokur - M.: Nauka, 1993. - 511 p.

10. Tarasov, E.F. The place of verbal communication in the communicative act. National and cultural specificity of speech behavior [Text] / E.F. Tarasov - M.: Nauka, 1977. - 212 p.

11. Venediktova V.I. About business ethics and etiquette. - M.: Legal Culture Foundation, 1994.-175 p.

12. Maksimova V.I., Russian language and culture of speech. - M., 2000. - 413 p.

13. Shiryaev E.N. What is the culture of speech // Russian speech. - 1991. - No. 4

14. Chestara J. Business etiquette. - M., 1997.

15. Kolesov V.V. A culture of speech. St. Petersburg: Lenizdat, 1988.

16. Collection of articles “On the culture of speech.” M: Knowledge, 1981

17. Goldin V.E., Sirotinina O.B. Speech culture // Russian language. Encyclopedia. - M., 1998.

18. Kalinin A.V. Culture of the Russian word. M: Moscow State University. — 1984

19. https://revolution.allbest.ru/languages/00346923_0.html

20. https://cinref.ru/razdel/02200inostran_izik/10/306634.htm

21. https://www.bestreferat.ru/referat-163535.html

22. https://otherreferats.allbest.ru/languages/00561647_0.html

Annex 1

Questionnaire on the research topic

1. Do you know what speech etiquette is? (Not really)

2. Is it necessary to master speech etiquette skills? (yes, no, difficult to answer)

3. Do you say hello to teachers and technical workers at the college? (always, sometimes, never)

4. Do you say “Good morning” to your family and friends in the morning? (always, sometimes, never)

5. Do you use the words “thank you”, “thank you” in your speech? (often, sometimes, never)

6. Do you use the words “sorry”, “excuse me” in your speech? (often, sometimes, never)

7. Do you use rude, obscene words in your speech? (often, sometimes, never)

Appendix 2

Results of student survey

Audiences

Audience control develops through long histories of reinforcement and punishment. Skinner's can be used to analyze how this works: the first term, the antecedent, refers to the audience in whose presence the verbal response (the second term) occurs. The consequences of the response are the third term, and whether those consequences actually strengthen or weaken the response will affect whether that response is repeated in the presence of that audience. Through this process, audience control, or the likelihood that certain responses will occur in the presence of certain audiences, develops. Skinner notes that while audience control develops due to history with a particular audience, we do not have to have a long history with each listener to effectively engage in speech behavior in their presence (p. 176). We can respond to new audiences (new stimuli) as we would to similar audiences with whom we have a history.

Negative audiences

An audience that punishes certain types of speech behavior is called a negative audience (p. 178): In the presence of this audience, punished speech behavior is less likely. Skinner gives examples of adults punishing certain speech behavior of children, and a king punishing the speech behavior of his subjects.

Research and theory

Functional analytical psychotherapy is an application of Skinner's model of verbal behavior, typically developed by adult populations in non-laboratory (clinical) settings. As such, this approach represents an attempt to empirically test Applied Behavior Analysis and Language Behavior for problems such as depression and other common clinical problems.

Modern research in speech behavior is published in Analysis of Speech Behavior

(TaVb) and other Behavior analytic journals such as
The Journal of Experienced Analysis of Behavior
(JEAB) and
the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
(Toad). Research is also presented at poster sessions and conferences, such as at regional behavior analysis conventions or Association for Behavior Analysis (ABA) conventions nationally or internationally. There is also the Speech Behavior Special Interest Group (SIG) of the Association for Behavior Analysis (ABA) which has a mailing list.

Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention

and
Journal of Speech-Language Therapy and Applied Behavior Analysis
and publish clinical articles on speech-language-based interventions.

Skinner argued that his account of speech behavior may have a strong evolutionary parallel. In Skinner's article Choice by Consequences

he argued that operant conditioning is part of a three-level process involving genetic evolution, cultural evolution, and operant conditioning. All three processes, in his opinion, were examples of parallel processes of selection of consequences. David L. Hull, Rodney E. Langman, and Sigrid S. Glenn developed this parallel in detail. This topic continues to be a focus for behavior analysts. Behavior analyzers have been working on developing ideas based on verbal behavior for fifty years, and despite this, have difficulty explaining generative verbal behavior.

A little history

Problems of speech culture were raised already in the 4th century BC. Disputes among philosophers on the merits and demerits of speech led to the formation of a whole direction - rhetoric. Scientists and philosophers worked on scientific treatises, which outlined recommendations on the appropriateness of speech patterns and how to learn expressive speech. This is how the history of speech etiquette was formed.

In Russia, the scientist Mikhail Lomonosov was the first to draw attention to the development of eloquence and the concept of speech etiquette. He put forward a number of theories about the development of the skill of oratory, the ability to appeal with words in the scientific, literary environment and ordinary everyday life. His efforts were not in vain, because attention to speech and communication culture led to the development of a single literary language without dialects, local accents, or common sayings.

Tacting private events

Private events are a speaker-only event. Social events are events that occur outside the body's skin, that are observed by more than one person. A headache is an example of a private event and a car accident is an example of a public event.

The tacting of private events of the organism are shaped by the verbal community, differentially enhancing the diversity of behavior and response to the private events that occur (Catania, 2007, p. 9). For example, if a child verbally states, "circle" when the circle is in the immediate environment, this may be tact. If a child verbally states, “I have a toothache,” he/she may be tacting a private event while the stimulus is present on the speaker, but not the rest of the verbal community.

The verbal community shapes the initial development and maintenance or termination of beats for private events (Catania, 2007, p. 232). The body reacts in the same way to both private and social stimuli (Skinner, 1957, p. 130). However, it is more difficult for a verbal community to shape speech behavior associated with private events (Catania, 2007, p. 403). It may be more difficult to shape private events, but there are critical things that happen in the body's skin that should not be excluded from our understanding of speech behavior (Catania, 2007, p. 9).

Some problems are associated with tacting private events. Skinner (1957) recognized two basic dilemmas. First, he acknowledges our difficulty with predicting and controlling the incentives associated with tacting private events (p. 130). Catania (2007) describes this as a lack of incentive for members of the verbal community (p. 253). The second problem Skinner (1957) describes is our current inability to understand how verbal behavior associated with particular events develops (p. 131).

Skinner (1957) goes on to describe four possible ways that a verbal community can encourage speech behavior with a lack of access to speakers' stimuli. He suggests the most common method is through “single public accompaniment.” An example might be that when a child falls and begins to bleed, the caregiver tells them a statement like, "you got hurt." Another method is to "provide a response" associated with a particular stimulus. An example might be when a child runs up and cries, and holding his hands over their knee, the caregiver may make a statement such as, "You're injured." The third way is when the verbal community provides a reinforcing contingent on overt behavior and an organism that generalizes to the private event that is taking place. Skinner calls this "metaphorical or metonymic extension." The latter method, which Skinner suggests, can help shape our verbal behavior when behavior is initially at a low level and then develops into a special case (Skinner, 1957, p. 134). This concept can be generalized by understanding that the verbal behavior of private events can be shaped by the verbal community of language expansion (Catania Tacts, 2007, p. 263).

Private events are limited and should not serve as “explanations of behavior” (Skinner, 1957, p. 254). Skinner (1957) goes on to warn that "the language of private events can easily distract us from the social causes of behavior" (see functions of behavior).

New combinations of fragmented answers

A special case is where multiple causation comes into play, creating new verb forms into what Skinner describes as fragmented responses. Such combinations are usually vocals, although this may be due to different self-editing conditions rather than any special property. Such mutations may be "nonsense" and cannot further the verbal exchange in which it occurs. Freudian slips may be one special case of fragmentary responses, which tend to provide reinforcement and may inhibit self-editing. This phenomenon is more common in children and in adults learning a second language. Fatigue, illness and intemperance can usually produce fragmented responses.

Common problems

In stating the strength of an answer, Skinner offers some criteria for strength

(probabilistic): radiation, energy level, speed, repetition, but notes that these are all very limited means for inferring the strength of the response as they do not always change together as they may be under the control of other factors.
Radiation is not a yes/no measure, however the other three—energy levels, speed, repetition—contain possible indications of relative strength
.

• Radiation - If a response is emitted it can usually be interpreted as having some strength. Unusual or difficult conditions will tend to lend evidence to a conclusion about strength. Under normal circumstances, it becomes a less convincing basis for the withdrawal of force. This is a conclusion that either you have it or you don’t, and there is no gradation of value.
• Energy level - Unlike emissions as a basis for inference, energy levels (response magnitudes) provide the basis for inferring a reaction that has strength with a high range of varying strengths. The energy level is the basis from which we can infer a high propensity to react. Energetic and strong “Chomsky!”
  is the basis for deriving reaction forces, in contrast to the weak, short "Chomsky".
• Speed ​​- Speed ​​is the speed of the reaction itself, or the delay from the time at which it could occur to the time at which it does occur. The answer given quickly when requested forms the basis for deriving high strength.
• Repetition - “Chomsky Chomsky Chomsky!!” can be isolated and used as an indicator of relative strength compared to fast and/or energy emission "Chomsky!" Thus, repetition can be used as a way to build strength