Psychologists began studying gender differences at the end of the 19th century, but until the 1970s. they were largely concerned with demonstrating gender differences and justifying the different treatment of men and women (Denmark & Fernandez, 1993).
In the last 20 years alone, more than 20,000 articles have been published on sex differences (Myers, 1990), and some have continued to persist in the idea that the two sexes are fundamentally different.
It must still be remembered that even if such differences are found, they are relatively small, usually no more than 10%, and in most cases the distributions of male and female samples are 90% identical (Basow, 1986; Hyde, 1991; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974; Pleck, 1978; Spens et al., 1974).
As Hyde (1991) noted, when we say that men and women differ significantly on a particular trait, this does not necessarily mean that the difference is large.
Meta-analysis is a statistical technique that combines information from multiple studies to arrive at an overall estimate of the magnitude of differences between groups; in other words, it is an analysis of the results of other analyzes (for detailed descriptions and discussions involving mathematical statisticians, see Glass et al., 1981; Hyde & Linn, 1986; Rosenthal, 1991.)
Empathy and gender differences
Although all the evidence for the existence of gender differences in empathy is not clear, Hall's (1984) analysis of 125 studies of gender differences in sensitivity to nonverbal cues found that women generally have a better ability to read the emotions of others than men.
If women are better decoders, then it would be logical to expect that their levels of empathy would be higher (Eysenberg et al., 1989).
However, let's not forget that most studies did not find gender differences in empathy, and if they did appear, they were very weak.
Emotionality and gender differences
Eisenberg and co-authors (Eisenberg et al., 1989) found fairly modest gender differences in facial expressions and in subjects’ self-reports, suggesting that women were more responsive. One of the most interesting findings: gender differences increased with age.
In children of preschool age, very few gender differences were found, but by the second grade they began to appear more and more openly.
The authors also about (Eisenberg et al., 1989, p. 115).
Other studies, including adolescents (Stapley & Haviland, 1989), college students (Snell, 1989), and adults (Saurer & Eisler, 1990), have found that women are more emotionally expressive than men.
These studies, especially those that locate major turning points in childhood, suggest that through the process of socialization we learn to express or suppress emotions in socially acceptable ways.
Our society has different expectations and norms regarding emotional expression for men and women. These different expectations are passed on to us throughout our lives.
Research (Brody, 1985; Eisenberg et al., 1989) does show that sex differences in emotionality are generally greater in adolescents and adults than in children. It takes time to create them. This gives grounds to say (S. Bern, 2001) that emotionality (i.e., the strength of experienced emotions) is the same in men and women, but the degree of their external expression (emo/facial expression) is different.
Anger (anger) in men and women
E. Maccoby and C. Jacklin (E. Maccoby, C. Jacklin, 1974), based on an analysis of a number of experimental studies, came to the conclusion that in the first years of life there are no differences in the frequency and duration of this negative emotional reaction in boys and girls, but with With age, their frequency and intensity increase in boys, and decrease in girls. The authors explain this by saying that girls, having the same aggressive tendencies as boys, are afraid to show them because of possible punishment, while others view boys’ aggression more favorably.
Sadness in men and women
L.V. Kulikov revealed significant differences in self-assessment of sadness: among women it is higher. The same thing was revealed by M. S. Ponomareva, with the only difference that among younger schoolchildren, the tendency to sadness is more pronounced in boys.
Manifestation of fears in men and women
According to A.I. Zakharov (1995), the number of fears (i.e., what they are afraid of) is greater among girls than among boys. Adult men have a more pronounced fear of heights, and adult women have a more pronounced fear of the death of their parents. Women also have a much greater fear of war, fear of doing something wrong or not having time to do it. Girls have 6 times more imaginary fears than boys.
Manifestation of joy in men and women
The tendency to joy, according to M. S. Ponomareva, did not reveal clear gender differences: at the ages of 8-9, 12-13 and 16-17 years it is expressed equally in boys and girls, and at the ages of 10-11 and 14-15 years this tendency is more pronounced in girls.
The literature notes greater emotional sensitivity and emotional instability of women. The study of this issue by E.P. Ilyin and V.G. Pinigin (2001) on schoolchildren and students using self-assessments of life manifestations of emotions showed that females are clearly superior to males in all age groups in terms of emotional excitability, to a lesser extent - in intensity, and to an even lesser extent in the duration of preservation of emotions and emotional stability.
Emotional memory in men and women
Yu. L. Khanin (1978) obtained data that can be interpreted in favor of the conclusion that women have better emotional memory than men. True, the identified differences between men and women in remembering their experiences can be explained by worse reflection in men than in women, and lower severity of anxiety in men than in women, but all this also needs proof. Guilt and conscientiousness. The gender factor has a strong influence on the experience of guilt: in men it is less pronounced and they talk about the experience of guilt much less often than women. (L.V. Kulikov, 1997; V.S. Savina, 2001).
Differences in anxiety (emotional stability) between men and women
The fact of greater anxiety and neuroticism (leading to emotional lability, instability) of females compared to males has been found in many studies (see, for example, the works of L.P. Badanina, 1996; V.D. Kuzakova, 1975; A. I. Vinokurova, 1996). However, despite greater anxiety, women are more capable of suppressing it than men (K. D. Shafranskaya, 1973).
Problematic preoccupation (anxiety) in men and women
The greater anxiety and neuroticism of females is also manifested in their greater problem preoccupation.
S. Archer (1985) found that 42% of girls are concerned about the inability to combine family and work in the future. There were no such concerns among the young men. Seventy-five percent of boys answered that nothing bothers them, while only 16% of girls were the same.
According to A.G. Gretsov (2000), problematic concerns in almost all aspects of life are more expressed among girls than among boys (Table 4.3).
Envy in men and women
According to N. E. Serebryakova (2001), who applied an original method of identifying envy in relation to the successes of another in various life situations, women have higher envy than men, excluding careers; no differences between men and women were identified here.
Jealousy in men and women
Men are most jealous when their partner has sex with someone else. Women feel the most jealousy when their partner becomes emotionally attached to another. Psychologists believe that these differences reflect men's concerns about the certainty of their paternity and women's need for care from a partner (Buss, 1994). However, this is hardly the only issue.
Touchiness in men and women
With regard to touchiness, no significant gender differences were identified, according to P. A. Kovalev.
Gender differences in brain structure as a result of directed evolution
Gender differences in brain structure as a result of directed evolution
Gender differences in cognitive functions, along with other psychological functions, were probably formed in the process of human evolution due to different reproductive strategies in men and women (they have already been described in detail in previous chapters). Women's more developed empathic abilities seem to be associated with her close involvement in long-term care of offspring and the need for mutual assistance with other women (relatives and friends) when caring for children. The propensity for cooperation between women can be considered a phylogenetically ancient trait, typical of many primate species. More developed verbal abilities in women should also be considered an evolutionary adaptive characteristic, since they were supposed to play a leading role in the formation of initial verbal skills in infants. Indirect confirmation of this hypothesis can be considered empirical data that children of mothers with high speech fluency acquire language faster.
When they say that men, on average, are better at spatial orientation (in particular, they are easier than women to navigate using a map), this does not at all mean that women are not able to navigate the terrain. The point is that, due to the peculiarities of the division of labor in primitive groups, women were more attached to the habitat area and were less likely to travel long distances, as men did. Hence the different adaptive strategies in terrain orientation.
There are two different hypotheses regarding the origin of the male cognitive pattern. According to one version, men developed better abilities for orientation in space because they were engaged in hunting. Recent work by Sendrom et al shows that location orientation does indeed operate differently in men and women. Women navigate familiar terrain using specific memorized landmarks (this is exactly how our distant ancestors were supposed to navigate while collecting). Men, on the other hand, are mainly guided by an internal sense of the course of movement (while hunting, our distant ancestors, men, did not have time to follow the trajectory of their movement, but sought to return home by the shortest route).
The hypothesis about the initial connection between better developed spatial perception in men and hunting is not accepted by all researchers. The fact is that similar sex differences occur in rodents and many species of primates that practically do not practice hunting. The need for more effective orientation in the area may have originally developed in males so that they could leave their native groups and find partners, sometimes traveling long distances to do this. Of course, at later stages of evolution, when hominins switched to regular hunting, these abilities of males could provide them with invaluable service and undergo further improvement. To gain access to a female, males had to enter into competition with rivals, and under these conditions they did not need the development of empathy, but the development of assertiveness and aggressiveness.
In all cultures, women are more talkative than men, and the term "chatterer" is firmly attached to females. All over the world, girls are starting to talk after boys. By the age of three, girls' vocabulary on average is twice that of boys. In addition, girls' speech is more intelligible. Parents of boys turn to speech therapists much more often. The study of brain function in the process of verbal communication using nuclear magnetic resonance shows significant differences between men and women. In women, the brain has a special area localized in the frontal part of the left hemisphere and a slightly smaller area, symmetrically located in the right hemisphere. In men there is no such specialized area. During a conversation, men's entire left hemisphere is activated (Fig. 6.2).
Rice. 6.2. In women, speech centers are localized in both hemispheres. In men, only one hemisphere is responsible for speech—the left. (Adapted from Pease and Pease 2000).
The presence of speech areas in two hemispheres provides women with obvious advantages over men. Girls master grammar faster and easier, and learn foreign languages quickly. Not only do they have better language skills and speak more than men, but the rest of their brain is freed up to perform other tasks. This allows them to do several things at the same time. When a woman speaks, brain scans record not only the activation of the left and right speech centers, but also the auditory center. She can talk and listen at the same time, plus do several other unrelated things. Men can either talk or listen, because they are unable to do both due to limited brain capabilities.
Adaptation
The ability to adapt is directly related to the characteristics of the nervous system. It is known that all people differ in temperament (type of nervous system), but it is also known that women have a more flexible and less stable psyche (transitions from one emotional state to another occur in a matter of seconds) than men. It is this fact that allows us to talk about better adaptation abilities in women.
Gender stereotypes
A gender stereotype is an emotionally charged and simplified image of a woman and a man.
There are three groups of stereotypes. The first is related to the consolidation of professional and family roles. The second is with femininity and masculinity. And the third stereotypical group is associated with differences (gender) in labor content.
Men and women are always assigned a specific style of behavior. “Feminine” is considered sinful, corporeal, negative, childbearing, sensual, secondary. “Masculine” is compared with something positive, cultural, dominant, dominant.
As for work activity, stereotypes have established their own rules there too. A man is closer to leadership and creative work. For women – service work (activities of an expressive nature).
Let's touch on male and female family roles. There is an opinion that a man should not (be that as it may) be completely involved in family affairs, since this is a woman’s responsibility.
Features of male psychology
Men are more concentrated, but the concentration time is very short, which is why representatives of the stronger sex, who have a clear goal in life, are so energetic and always achieve their goals. Their attention is not scattered on other goals.
At the same time, it is much more difficult for men to withstand prolonged physical and psychological stress. Men's thoughts have a clear direction. They find it difficult to switch from one topic to another. If men talk about cars, then another topic of conversation will be opened only after this one has completely exhausted itself.
Gender differences between men and women
It has long been no secret that, thanks to brain differences in the brain, men and women are noticeably different.
Women often “play” with hints and often do not understand why men ask to talk about everything in detail and clearly. The fact is that the male half of humanity has a better developed right hemisphere. This dominance suggests that they are accustomed to taking all words literally and not looking for hidden meaning in them.
But the male brain is three hundred and twenty grams heavier than the female. Men are proud of this fact.
The degree of mental talent in women is three and a half percent higher than in men (despite the fact that the average intelligence score (120) is the same for both men and women).
Differences in communication are visible from an early age. Girls are always more talkative than their peers - boys. In general, women are twice as sociable as men.
Conduct an experiment and you will understand that this is indeed the case.
Women even speak out their own thoughts. They always want to speak out. The men think silently.
Males, mostly, talk with friends solely on business or in order to keep a “beer” company.
Women never get tired of communication. They always find a reason for it. And if the ladies are silent for a long time, then something has happened to them.
Men cry, but only when they get drunk in those moments when they are sure that no one sees their condition.
Women often speak out about their experiences, plans and ideas. Men have to “pull their tongues” in order to find out from them at least some details of this or that matter (case, plan, etc.).
Conflict resolution
It has been established that women cope with emotional problems more easily than with family conflicts.
Features of female psychology
Concentration in women is poorly developed, but representatives of the fairer sex are able to quickly switch attention. She was just talking with a friend about what type of coffee is better, and then she jumps to where it is better to buy a handbag. Women can talk on several topics at the same time and understand each other perfectly. But a woman’s brain is constantly fixated on little things that can get in the way.
Women are able to withstand psychological stress for a long time, but if they do not give it an outlet, a breakdown will occur. Therefore, representatives of the fairer sex need relaxation and a shift of attention to unimportant little things.
What is gender?
Initially, gender in English grammar meant being classified as feminine or masculine. Sexologist John Money had an unusual patient - the child had a discrepancy between his biological sex and his internal sense of his gender. In 1955, in order to designate the internal state of a person in terms of feeling like a man or a woman, Money used the term gender identity .
To interpret gender as sex would be a big mistake. When we talk about gender, we draw a line between the biological and the psychological. Biological sex is genitals, hormones, DNA... Gender is an internal feeling of gender, positioning oneself in society in a certain way. Gender researchers propose to remove biological grounds from the term “gender” altogether, believing that all differences in behavior, aggression, skills, and areas of activity are a product of the individual’s internal self-determination and social expectations associated with one gender or another.
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Let me give you an example. Remember Mr. Rochester's revelations in Jane Eyre about losing the love of his life?
“If a person had a single sheep that was dear to him, like his own child, who ate and drank with him from the same dishes and slept on his chest, and by some accident he killed her, then he could not mourn his there is more criminal oversight than I have.”
These are the gender attitudes of the wealthy social stratum of mid-19th century England: a woman is defenseless, she is a charming pet, her life is completely in the hands of a man. Let's go down to the kitchen and we will see women raised for hard, productive physical labor. If the cook's daughter began to behave like an adorable pet, her mother would quickly and clearly explain to her the seriousness of the mistake.
Society is the same, gender is the same (female); social strata are different, gender stereotypes are different.
Biological sex is contrasting generative characteristics of individuals of the same species or a morphofunctional characteristic of an organism that generalizes all its specifically reproductive characteristics (Ilyin).
Gender is the social sex of a person, a dynamic construct that is realized in interaction and exists outside of biological determinism (Mokhova).
Again:
Gender is a person’s social sex (as opposed to biological), a dynamic construct (can change depending on the individual’s experience, characteristics of society, historical period), which is realized in interaction (reflected in gender performance, manifested in behavior) and exists outside of biological determinism (biology doesn't matter).
Gender also helps to take a fresh look at power relations in society.
Assessment and self-esteem
Women are more likely to suffer from low self-esteem and dissatisfaction with themselves. When it comes to evaluating other people, women evaluate men more adequately than women. This is quite understandable. After all, every woman is a potential rival. If a conflict arises between two women, then the battle will be life and death. It has long been proven that in wrestling women are much more cynical, tougher, more aggressive and calculating than men.
Men are more tolerant and forgiving of women's shortcomings, perhaps because they always consider themselves a little better and stronger. Women in general are more prone to judgment, discussion and condemnation.
Two more patterns are also interesting:
- Men rate women's business qualities lower than they expect. Women rate physical strength lower than men expect.
- But in terms of appearance, women are more lenient towards men, which cannot be said about men’s perception of women’s appearance.
Perception
Of all types of perception, men have the best developed visual. Women perceive better by ear. Yes, yes, men really love with their eyes, and women love with their ears.
As for color perception, it develops earlier in women. In addition, women can see more shades. Women's perceptions are generally more flexible than men's.
Communication
Men pay attention to arguments. In communication, they are laconic and unemotional. Women tend to be distracted from the essence of the conversation, using emotions or intonation instead of arguments.
Men are prone to discussions and consideration of different positions. They do not perceive any difference of opinion as a quarrel. For women it’s the opposite. Because of this and the psychological tendency of men to weakly recognize intonations, women’s grievances often arise.
And what does sexual orientation have to do with it?
Let's be honest. Our time is not a good time to create any definitive classifications in the field of sexual orientation. Thanks to the relative availability of gender reassignment operations and the increasing reflection of sexual preferences, we are seeing a huge number of gender positioning options and ongoing research in this regard.
According to some sources, there are 54 options, of which 24 begin with the word “trans”, and the remaining 30 options are clearly not enough for self-determination, so the classification also includes definitions such as “neither” and “other” (neither one nor the other and the other ).
We cannot (and have no right) draw a line on the issue of sexual orientation, but we can consider the most frequently heard options today.
Heterosexuality is the direction of sexual attraction towards people of the opposite sex.
Homosexuality is the direction of sexual attraction towards people of the same sex. Options: homosexual man - “gay”; or a homosexual woman is a “lesbian.” The concepts themselves may describe orientation, identity, or behavior.
Bisexuality is the direction of sexual attraction both towards people of the opposite sex and towards people of the same sex.
Asexuality is the absence of sexual desire and lack of need for sexual relations.
Demisexuality - sexual attraction occurs only with a strong emotional connection with the object; the gender of the object to which the attraction is directed depends on the personal characteristics of the demisexual. Sexual attraction can only arise as a result of emotional attachment. They are considered close to the asexual community, since sexual attraction can be quite rare (one or a few people in a lifetime).
Pansexuality - the direction of sexual attraction is associated with sympathy for the individual and does not depend on the gender of the partner. In this case, for the emergence of sexual desire, the person’s personality is important, not his gender. As Samantha Jones, one of the daring Sex and the City foursome, said: “It doesn’t matter whether you sleep with a man or a woman, you sleep with a person!”
