Sociologists use two different terms to refer to biological and socially constructed differences: sex and gender. Although both are concerned with the differences between men and women, the concepts of sex and gender have different connotations. Sex refers to differences in both the biological, anatomical, physiological, and chromosomal characteristics of people that define them as male or female.
They are characteristics that a person is born with, and they are universal, that is, they are common to all societies and cultures, and they do not change.
Gender is a set of ideas, beliefs and social identities that are constructed in every culture and at every historical moment on the basis of sexual differences. And its features have been formed throughout the history of social relations.
Gender - what is it
The gender approach or perspective looks at the different opportunities that men and women have, the relationship between them, and the different roles they are assigned in society. Gender relations shape different ways of accessing health services, especially in the area of sexual and reproductive health.
In anthropology, gender is defined as the cultural and historical interpretation that each society develops around sexual differentiation. This interpretation gives rise to a set of social beliefs, practices, discourses, norms, values and attitudes that give meaning to people's behavior based on their gender.
In psychology, gender is defined as the process by which biologically different people become women and men through the acquisition of attributes that each society defines as characteristics of femininity and masculinity. In this sense, gender is a psychosocial construction of femininity and masculinity.
What are gender differences from a psychological point of view? These are categories in which three main elements are formulated:
Gender, on the other hand, has been conceptualized as the structuring element of a set of social relations—gender relations—that shape the interactions of people as sexual partners. Gender relations are socially constructed and therefore amenable to transformation. They do not come from biology and are not necessarily harmonious; on the contrary, they can contradict each other.
Gender role
Gender roles are behaviors that are socially perceived as appropriate for each gender.
Gender roles in society determine how we should act, speak, dress, court others or partners, and behave based on our gender. For example, women and girls are expected to dress femininely, be polite, gracious, and have maternal tendencies. In turn, men are expected to be strong, aggressive and fearless.
In both cases it is a social construct, rules set by the context in which each person lives. Thus, behavior that is considered appropriate for the female gender may vary from one culture to another and from one time to another. This is because every society, ethnic group and culture has expectations regarding gender roles.
In turn, gender roles are constantly changing and evolving in tandem with other social norms. Thus, 70 years ago in Europe it was reprehensible for women to wear trousers or it was surprising for a man to devote himself to housework. Today, both behaviors are normalized as society has made progress in terms of gender equality.
Gender identity
Gender identity is how we feel about ourselves and how we express those feelings. Clothing, appearance and behavior are ways of expressing gender identity.
Most people feel like men or women. Some people feel like masculine women or feminine men. These people may consider themselves gender variant. And some people feel like they are neither male nor female—these people may consider themselves “cross-gender” or “gender fluid.” The idea of one’s own gender identity begins to take shape at 2–3 years of age.
For some people, sex and gender identity are the same or related. These people are called "cisgender". Other people believe that their assigned gender is different from their identity gender (for example, their assigned gender is female, but their gender identity is male). These people are called "transgender" or "tranny". But not all transgender people have the same identity.
Psychoanalytic theories
Z. Freud argued that boys and girls go through fundamentally different development paths.
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At an early age, both boys and girls feel identified with their mother, because they recently were part of her. From 3 to 5 years old, the child begins to see differences and identifies himself with the parent of his age.
Gradually, the child takes on the gender traits of the parent of the same sex. It is believed that in boys this connection is stronger, and therefore the manifestation of typical masculine traits is stronger than in girls - feminine ones.
If one of the parents is absent or does not take sufficient part in the child’s life, the child finds a “replacement” that he begins to copy. This could be a teacher, a relative, or even a movie star.
Practical modern research also refutes Freud's theory; a large role is assigned to the “replacement” that the child chooses as a model for himself.
Cognitive and social theories
All of the described theories converge among cognitive scientists, who believe that gender is the result of social and biological factors.
Photo by Magda Ehlers from Pexels
In modern theories, man is not a meek toy in the hands of nature and the environment. His activities and activities determine what identity he chooses.
From the point of view of the environment, not only parents influence the child’s psyche. This includes the media, literature, music and any adults who, for some reason, have become significant to the child. Research has confirmed that children who watched more television were more likely to engage in gender stereotyping.
Of course, parents are the main source of information about gender for a child; their influence lies primarily in encouraging expressions of the desired gender and sanctioning unacceptable behavior. Since childhood, girls are given dolls, and boys are given cars, although a small child will equally happily take any toy.
History of the concept
As a category of analysis, the concept of "gender" was first used in the social sciences in 1955, when anthropologist John Money coined the terms "gender role" and "gender identity" to describe the behaviors socially attributed to men and women.
In 1968, psychologist Robert Stoller defined this “gender identity,” which is determined not by biological sex, but by the fact that from birth one has acquired the experiences, rites and customs, and patterns of behavior attributed to each gender.
In the 70s, Anglo-Saxon feminism promoted the use of this concept to highlight inequalities between men and women that are socially constructed rather than biological.
Therefore, the distinction between sexual differentiation as determined by the chromosomal, gonadal, hormonal, anatomical and physiological sex of individuals and the interpretations each society makes of this allows for a better understanding of social reality. It also shows that human characteristics considered feminine or masculine are acquired through a complex individual and social process.
In the 1980s, the term "gender" began to be used in various social science disciplines because it proved to be a useful category for making a more precise distinction: how difference (biological) becomes inequality (economic, social and political) between women and men, placing the determinants of inequality genders on a symbolic, cultural and historical basis.
Types or types of genders.
There are many different words, terms and labels that people use to describe their gender or gender characteristics and identity. Here are some of the most common:
Cisgender.
A word used to describe people whose gender matches their body gender or assigned gender. For example, a cisgender man identifies as male, the gender assigned at birth.
In simple words, Cisgender is an ordinary man who feels like a man; a woman who feels like a woman.
Trans and gender diversity.
A general word used to identify people whose gender is different from their biological sex. Trans is an inclusive term because it includes all those who identify as non-binary and genderless.
Transgender.
A transgender person is a person whose gender identity or gender expression does not correspond to the sex usually assigned at birth.
Genderqueer/non-binary.
Genderqueer is someone who has a gender identity that does not match society's expectations of the sex they were assigned at birth or their assigned sex.
The term can also refer to someone who identifies as a combination of different genders. Any gender identity that falls within, outside, across, or between the spectrum of male and female binaries. A nonbinary person may identify as gender fluid, transmasculine, transfeminine, agender, bigender, etc.
Types/types of non-binary genders:
- An agender person is someone who does not identify with one specific gender or does not have one at all.
- An androgyne is someone whose gender is both feminine and masculine, or on the spectrum between feminine and masculine.
- A bigender is someone who has two genders, often demonstrating culturally and socially feminine and masculine roles.
- Genderfluid is someone who identifies as gender fluid and has a presentation and gender identity that fluctuates between or outside of society's expectations for gender.
- A gender outlaw is someone who refuses to allow society's definition of "woman" or "man" to define what they are.
- Omnigender is someone who combines all gender identities.
- Polygender and pangender are someone who experiences and exhibits aspects of different genders.
Intersex.
Intersex is a person born with reproductive organs, hormone levels, and/or sex chromosomes that are not exclusively male or female.
There are many different conditions of intersex, and they are not always obvious on the outside or even diagnosed.
Gender roles and gender stereotypes
More and more changes are taking place in society and culture. This means that what is considered masculine and feminine is also changing. Today, in all societies, we see that women are no longer confined to the home, but rather enter the public space, have high-paying jobs and participate in productive tasks.
And men are involved in reproductive tasks and take on responsibilities at home and caring for children, elderly and sick relatives. Men change and participate in household chores and concerns.
This situation is positive because it leads to gender equality. According to the UN, it is believed that if all men participated in caring for the sick, there would be fewer wars.
Sex and gender: differences.
The concepts “sex” and “gender” are often used interchangeably, despite their different meanings:
- Gender is a label (male or female) that we are assigned by a doctor at birth based on the genitalia we are born with and our chromosomes. The gender is listed on our birth certificate.
- Gender is a much more complex concept: it is a social and legal status and a set of expectations from society regarding behavior, characteristics and thoughts. Every culture has standards (stereotypes) for people's behavior depending on their gender. But rather than talking about body parts, it's more about what you're expected to do based on your gender identity.
Classification of genders, distinctive features
Diversity is present in all aspects of life, it is a generator of agreements and disagreements, as it represents one of the main current conflicts in our society. Any type of diversity: ethnic, cultural or gender implies values such as solidarity and respect for differences. A person should live their sexual orientation and gender identity freely and responsibly.
Currently, there are three main types of gender identity:
Bipolar
Initially, bipolar identity assumed a strict differentiation of gender identity based on sex (men have exclusively masculine characteristics, and women have feminine ones).
At the end of the twentieth century, the concept of a bipolar model of gender identity was revised. At the moment, it is assumed that men and women do not necessarily conform to traditional sex role models and can combine the characteristics of both sexes in their behavior.
Multipolar
The multipolar model of gender identity allows for the existence of several options for gender identity within the same sex.
The multipolar model of gender identity is represented by 6 options:
Androgynous
Gender ambiguity is also known as androgyny.
The word "androgyny" comes from the Greek word "andro" and means man - masculinity, and the word "gyne" means woman - femininity.
Thus, androgyny, having a non-binary gender identity, means having both masculine and feminine characteristics. According to scientists, the androgyne has fulfilled the highest dream of every person: to have both sexes at the same time.
Due to the fact that androgyny refers to people who do not want to be seen/identified by their gender - they can have absolutely any appearance and sexual orientation.
By object of attraction
Describing a person's enduring physical, romantic, and/or emotional attraction to another person, that gender identity and sexual orientation are not the same thing. Non-binary genders can be straight, lesbian, gay, bisexual or queer. For example, a person who is transitioning from male to female and who is attracted exclusively to men will usually identify as a heterosexual woman.
Study of gender inequality in various spheres and areas of public life
Gender stereotypes, like all other social stereotypes, play a significant role in a person’s assessment of the world around him and himself, providing quick, simple and fairly reliable categorization and simplification of his social environment. However, a stereotype that is formed in conditions of limited information about the perceived object often turns out to be false and plays a conservative role, forming false knowledge about people and deforming the process of interpersonal interaction.
Below are the results of sociological research on the situation of men and women in different countries of the world.
In most countries of the world, women's average earnings are 40-65% of men's earnings. Underdeveloped countries experience greater inequality—but in both directions.
The most anti-feminist countries are Islamic countries - Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, Libya, Belize, Syria, Yemen, Iran, Algeria, etc. - and some Latin American countries - Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Paraguay, Argentina, etc. In all of these countries, women's average earnings are less than 35% of men's earnings. Examples from Europe are Luxembourg (36%), Ireland (38%), Spain (41%), Belgium and Japan (43%), Greece and Italy (46%).
In developing countries the trend is the opposite. Women's wages are closer to men's in the poorest countries (in the Fourth World) and lag furthest behind in the richest countries.
From this it can be concluded that in Islamic countries there is a strong difference in the status of the rights of men and women, with women having a lower status than men. This is explained by the strong influence of religion on the formation of stereotypes.
In rich developed countries, the stereotype of “woman as a housewife” and “man as breadwinner” still persists, so income inequality is high. For example, in America there are “boys” and “girls” professions, “male” and “female” work, purely “male” and purely “female” behavior. In the poorest countries, on the contrary, women are often equated with men based on their abilities.
The influence of gender stereotypes can be observed in all spheres of public life. We are talking about the division of tasks in the family, in advertising and in work.
Let's consider the manifestation of gender stereotypes in the family.
Until now, gender differences in the family and society are often explained by some known psychological or biological characteristics of women or men, which is more consistent with traditional gender stereotypes.
According to a survey conducted in 2001 by scientists from Ivanovo State University with the support of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation within the framework of the scientific program “Gender Research”, it turned out that more than half of the respondents (52.1%) believe that both spouses should manage the family budget, 12% gave this privilege to the husband, and 27.7% - to the wife. 600 men and women took part in the survey. The following were selected as differentiating characteristics: Occupation, marital status, age, gender and level of education of the respondents. These results show that when determining a family's life strategy, a woman acts more often than a man. However, the power that a woman possesses is of a mythical nature. It is a woman who is able to “stretch the family budget for all needs” through all kinds of savings, planning expenses down to the smallest detail, etc. It follows from this that the understanding of power relations in the family has a fundamentally different connotation than power relations in society. The wife, with the tacit consent of her husband, still “dominates” in most areas of family life: she manages the budget, runs the household, and looks after the children. Both male and female societies have not yet encountered resistance to such a distribution of roles.
Current use of the term
National governments and public organizations have been using the term “gender” extensively for a long time. They are developing a range of policies, tools and resources to ensure that their development programs take into account gender inequalities.
These strategies include mainstreaming a gender perspective into the organization, conducting gender and sexuality analyzes and gender assessments to determine the impact of programs, policies and laws.
Progress in implementing these strategies, and therefore in increasing gender awareness and gender equality, has been slow. Reasons for this include lack of commitment from stakeholders and insufficient allocation of resources.
Gaps in the collection, processing and reporting of gender-sensitive data also pose a major challenge to effective gender analysis.
Although gender issues are often recognized as important and clearly distinguished from sex issues, states and public organizations often pay less attention to them, considering other aspects of development, such as democracy, poverty or conflict, to be more relevant.
Natalia Shakhova
Gender and sexual orientation.
There is a significant difference between the concepts of “gender” and “sexual orientation”. Gender and sexual orientation are two different but interrelated aspects of personality.
- Gender is personal (how we see ourselves).
- Sexual orientation is interpersonal (who we are physically, emotionally and/or romantically attracted to).
Why is it so important to distinguish between these two concepts? When we confuse gender with sexual orientation, we are likely making assumptions about people that have nothing to do with who they really are. For example, when someone's gender expression is inconsistent with the expectations of others, assumptions are often made about that person's sexual orientation. A boy who likes to play princess is considered gay, and a girl who buys clothes in the “boys” department and prefers short hair may be considered a lesbian. These may be erroneous conclusions. What someone wears and how they act is a function of gender expression. You can't tell a person's sexual orientation by what they wear (for that matter, you also can't tell their gender identity unless they tell you).
The confusion of gender and sexual orientation in our society can also impact young people's ability to understand and articulate aspects of their gender. For example, transgender or non-binary people often question whether they are gay or lesbian (or any other sexual orientation other than heterosexual) before coming to a fuller understanding of their gender identity. How we come to understand our gender and sexual orientation, and the decisions we make to discover and express it, are different paths.
Consequences of the struggle for equal rights
Women's struggle for gender equality, which began at the end of the nineteenth century, ended with many women now working for themselves and for men, and men abdicating part of the responsibility for raising funds to support the family, while not considering themselves obligated to help women with their needs. home and in raising children.
A modern woman takes on too much and, “turning” into a man, complains: “There are simply no normal men left!”
The gender role of men is also undergoing significant changes these days. She becomes closer to the traditional gender role of a woman, just like the gender role of a woman to a man. Gender roles are merging.
Another trend is also observed.
Men and women change roles !
For example, today it is becoming increasingly popular (especially in Western European countries) for men, rather than women, to go on maternity leave (and they do it voluntarily, of their own free will). It was after women received equal rights with men that not equality, but a change in roles began to be observed.
Men and women legally have equal rights, but in fact remain unequal. A modern woman is more often both a Homemaker (the traditional role of a woman) and a Provider (the traditional role of a man), and a man is more often either a Provider or a Homemaker. This is what the movement and struggle for gender equality has led to - new inequality .
But the fact is that a man and a woman cannot be equal, because nature made them different ! No matter how strong a person’s mind is and no matter how developed his personality is, he is also a biological being, nature also determines the gender role.
Even if a woman chooses a traditionally male gender role, and her man chooses a female one, there will come a time when their system goes wrong. This moment will be the birth of the child. No matter how feminine a man is, no matter how good he is at running a household and taking care of children, there is something that will never allow him to fully realize himself in the female role - he cannot become pregnant and give birth to a child.
If both spouses have the same rights and responsibilities and are completely equal, there will be no family! Who will take care of the children if both work? Who will bring money into the house if both are unemployed?
Women solve this problem by shouldering a double burden of responsibility, but judging by the number of unhappy women, unhappy families, divorces and children growing up without a father, it is not difficult to guess that this approach to solving the problem is ineffective .
Subjecting people to gender norms
According to Sean Byrne's research, there are three types of human conformity to social norms. The first is compliance, it manifests itself as a person’s approval of social norms that are unacceptable to him, and adjustment to them in order to avoid condemnation, punishment and in the hope of approval of his behavior by society.
Next comes approval, that is, the person’s complete agreement with the presented gender norms. The third type is identification, a person behaves in full accordance with the role model of behavior presented to him in society.
